The state and globalisation

Question 1

Define Sovereignty

Answer 1

State sovereignty means that there is no power higher than them, and they cannot be told what to do by anyone else. They have absolute power, both internally and externally.

Question 2

Define Nation state

Answer 2

A state is a geographical area with clear boundaries, therefore the nation-state is one in which a group of people regarding themselves as a nation rule themselves in their own sovereign territory. This is closely related to the concept of self-determination, and usually today the nation-state is the way a country is organised.

Question 3

Define non-state actors

Answer 3

Non-state actors are participants in international relations with significant power and influence, but which are not nation states. Non-state actors include non-governmental organisations (e.g. the United Nations, World Bank) as well as “violent” non-state actors such as ISIS.

Question 4

Define Globalisation

Answer 4

In the simplest terms globalisation is the greater integration of the world. This means that different countries, organisations, businesses have through the exchange of ideas, policies, cultures, and the interaction of economies become increasingly interconnected. Globalisation has been described as the “death of distance”.

Question 5

Define Economic Globalisation

Answer 5

Economic globalisation refers to the integration and interconnectedness of national economies. It involves the free flow of goods, services, capital, and technology across borders.

Question 6

Define Political Globalisation

Answer 6

Political globalisation refers to the amount of political co-operation that exists between different countries. This ties in with the belief that “umbrella” global organisations are better placed than individual states to prevent conflict.

Question 7

Define Cultural Globalisation

Answer 7

Cultural globalisation is our third type of globalisation, and it refers to the diffusion and exchange of ideas, values, beliefs, and practices across different cultures and societies. It involves the spread of cultural products, such as music, movies, fashion, and cuisine, across national boundaries

Question 8

Define Homogenisation and
monoculture

Answer 8

Coming together of global cultures and development of a single, homogenous culture without diversity or dissent

Question 9

Define Interconnectedness

Answer 9

Mutual reliance between two or more states, institutions,
actors and groups

Question 10

Define World government

Answer 10

Common political authority with legislative and executive power over states

Question 11

Define Global governance

Answer 11

A movement towards the political integration of states in order to address problems that face more than one state or region

Question 12

Define Legal sovereignty

Answer 12

Legal sovereignty (or de jure sovereignty) is the right to rule.
Underpinned by the exercise of power. If they cannot enforce command, only having legal sovereignty gives them only moral weight - the Baltic states had this problem during the collapse of the USSR (1990-91).

Question 13

Define Political sovereignty

Answer 13

Political sovereignty (or de facto sovereignty) is based on where the power distribution actually lies, or their ability to exert power.
Nazi Germany, Stalinist Russia and Pol Pot’s Cambodia show that political sovereignty achieved through force, fear and terror are not soverign (or successful), but recognise the need to give their regimes the mantle of legal authority.

Question 14

How is Sovereignty Morally Justified?

Answer 14

Sovereignty can be defined as having complete authority over a group who share a national identity.
* The state exists in order to protect the national identities of their citizens - they are compelled to do this because it is a fundamental HR to have freedom of expression, and many will choose to express their national identity.
* Sovereignty must be protected to allow these states to protect their citizens’ wishes of expressing their national identity.

Question 15

The Key Principles of Parliamentary Sovereignty

Answer 15

There are 3 key aspects to Parliamentary sovereignty:
* Parliament can make laws on anything which it chooses.
* No parliament can bind its successors, or be bound by its previous successors.
* It is undermined by the EU, HRA, devolution and referendums.

The EU undermines sovereignty due to:
* The Factortame case (EU law has precedence over UK statute law). Parliament cannot make laws on anything which it chooses (fisheries policy etc.).
* The UK doesn’t have full control over where the EU spends its (our) money.
* The EU commission propose laws, yet are not approved by the UK.

But pooled sovereignty is created under the EU. By losing some of your internal sovereignty, and ‘pooling’ it with other states, you can increase your external sovereignty.

Question 16

Westphalian Principles of Sovereignty

Answer 16

• Sovereign Equality: All states are equally sovereign - be that the USA or Benin etc.
• Self-Determination: States should be able to choose their own path, in order to celebrate their national differences.
• Non-Intervention: States must not interfere in the internal affairs of another state. This allows for sovereign equality and self-determination.

Question 17

Outline Internal sovereignty

Answer 17

Internal Sovereignty: The location of supreme power/authority within the state.

Early thinkers believed that sovereignty should lie in the hands of a single sovereign. But Rosseau rejected monarchical rule in favor of the notion of popular sovereignty, where authority is based on the people, and their ‘will’. Sovereignty should reside in a single body. This has been undermined and criticised for being too absolutist, and not applying to modern government. Sovereignty is undermined by pluralist democracy and popular sovereignty in this view.

Sovereignty is characterised as being indivisible - yet federal systems have some sovereignty in states, and some in the federal government. The USA has polycentric sovereignty - is it in the constitution, or in the people etc.

In the UK, legal sovereignty lies in the Westminster Parliament - but the Factortame case (1991) means it may reside in the EU?
Politically, Parliament may never have been sovereign. It cannot act as it pleases due to devolution, referendums, the EU etc., which limits the real decision-making ability of Parliament.

Question 18

Outline External sovereignty

Answer 18

External Sovereignty: The state’s role within the international order, and the capacity of a state to act independently and autonomously on the world stage.
The UNC protects external sovereignty, as states are allowed to determine their own decisions. E.g. states must consent to UN peacekeeping missions. It embodies two principles: national-independence, and self-government.

External sovereignty differs from internal sovereignty, in that it relates to the state’s place in the international order, and its sovereign independence in relation to other states. Divisions derive from issues of external sovereignty: The Israel-Palestine conflict is about the right to territory. The USSR collapse meant that new territories emerged in Europe. This form of sovereignty can lead to conflict with HR. States can treat their citizens however they like, although it’s agreed within the international community that they must respect HR, and humanitarian intervention can be justified (R2P). E.g. Kosovo (1999), the Taliban in Afghanistan (2001).

National sovereignty can also lead to conflict and war, because there is no supreme international authority, meaning that disputes between rival states will lead to conflict. In the same way that a lack of internal sovereignty will lead to Hobbes’ ‘state of nature’.

Question 19

Has the Concept of Independent Sovereign States Become Outdated?

Answer 19

• The world is becoming increasingly interdependent and globalised.
• Economic life is dominated by TNCs and MNCs, which means that no state can be fully sovereign over their economic affairs.
• Politically, few states are externally sovereign: coercive power is unequally distributed around the world. Superpowers may be the only truly sovereign states, that are independent and can do whatever they want. But even then, superpowers tend to be forced into costly arms races.
• US world hegemony means that no other states can be completely sovereign. Yet the USA’s power is limited and constrained, hence their lack of success in the WoT and in humanitarian intervention.

Question 20

Outline the History of a nation-state

Answer 20

Since the seventeenth century, the state has increasingly become the main player in global relations, providing the foundation for domestic peace and international relations. According to Hugo Grotius, the state is ‘a complete association of free men, joined together for the enjoyment of rights and for their common interest’, while both Jean Bodin and Thomas Hobbes argued that adherence to the authority of the sovereign state provided the most effective way of protecting society from mankind’s potential for anarchy. Bodin lived through the St Bartholemew’s Day Massacre in 1572, when vengeful Catholics murdered French Protestants in their thousands as royal governance broke down. Hobbes had first-hand experience of the destruction wrought by the English Civil War. Both appreciated that a powerful sovereign state, with the ability to control its subjects, provided the best way of ensuring peace and stability.

Question 21

Outline the Key ideas of nationalism

Answer 21

Citizenship is a legal status granted by a government, granting membership, rights, and obligations. It is based on criteria like place of birth, residency, or ancestry, and grants rights and responsibilities like voting, working, and obeying laws. Nationality, on the other hand, is a social and cultural concept based on shared language, culture, and history. It is a sense of belonging to a particular nation or group of people, often based on shared experiences, values, and traditions. Nationship is not necessarily tied to a particular government or legal status, but can be passed down through generations. Nationship is important as it is the idea behind one of the most powerful forces in global politics: nationalism. Nationalism can be a force for good, uniting people and leading to freedom from tyranny, or a force for bad, leading countries and peoples to war and conflict. The nation state is a relatively recent development, with loyalty to and identification with the nation state becoming dominant since the 18th century.

Question 22

Define Nationalism

Answer 22

the belief in one’s own country – is one of the most powerful ideas in modern history. Nationalism has led to the formation of nations, struggles for freedom, but also to tyranny and the persecution of minorities and to war.

Question 23

Outline The Sovereignty of the State

Answer 23

Sovereignty in nation states refers to the absolute power of the state, which includes the monopoly on the legitimate use of violence. This power allows the state to arrest, trial, sentence, and execute citizens, often claiming it comes from the people. In the UK, parliament is the sovereign body, but as a democracy, the people can also claim popular sovereignty. The USA is a federal country with multiple autonomous sovereign bodies, with 50 states sharing sovereignty with the federal government. However, the concept of sovereignty may not exist in practice, as states are affected by other states’ actions and events.

Question 24

Outline Issues with nationhood and statehood in the modern world : Nations without a state

Answer 24

Nations without their own state, such as the Kurds, Sahrawi, Tibetans, Basques, and Palestinians, have been seeking recognition and autonomy for decades. Some of these claims have been backed by international organizations like the United Nations. In 2014, Scotland held an independence referendum, allowing the people to decide whether to secede from the UK. However, the Basque and Catalonian people in Spain have not been recognized by the Spanish government. Secessionist movements in these regions use nationalist sentiment, drawing on their history, traditions, folklore, language, politics, and economics to push for an independent and sovereign nation. These movements have sometimes turned violent, with ETA in northern Spain fighting for their freedom, a stance some might call terrorism.

Question 25

Outline Issues with nationhood and statehood in the modern world : National claims that cross borders

Answer 25

Territorial claims of nations often do not align with state borders, leading to disputes over sovereignty and ownership. This is complicated by competing historical and traditional claims of the people living in the territory. This issue is particularly pronounced when two nations claim the same land, as seen in Northern Ireland, the Middle East, and the recent conflict in eastern Ukraine. Both nations have strong historical arguments and legitimacy, but the conflict is particularly intractable when two nations claim the same land. The conflict highlights the need for a balance between national interests and the sovereignty and independence of the state.

Question 26

Outline Issues with nationhood and statehood in the modern world :States not recognised by other states

Answer 26

There are several examples of state-like entities that are not recognised by other states, so find it difficult to operate in the international system. Micro-nations are tiny parcels of land that claim they are independent and sovereign states, but are not recognised as such – so, for example, their issuing of passports and currency has no legal or practical value. One such micro-nation is Sealand, off the coast of Essex in England. They claim they are a state, but to all practical purposes, they do not exist. More pressing examples of states not recognised by other states are Kosovo, South Ossetia, Abkhazia and Transnistria.

Question 27

Outline Characteristics of national sovereignty

Answer 27

Sovereignty is the state’s absolute power over its citizens and subjects, encompassing absolute and ultimate authority. It is defined as having a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a given territory. However, the concept has become increasingly debated due to globalization, as states are affected by other states’ actions and events.

In the UK, the UK constitution identifies parliament as the sovereign body, with no higher body than it. However, popular sovereignty can also be argued as a democracy, where the people are sovereign. In the USA, popular sovereignty is upheld by the Constitution, but the country is also a federal country with two or more autonomous sovereign bodies. 50 individual states share sovereignty with the federal government, and within the branches of government, there is a system of checks and balances, ensuring that no single institution of government is sovereign.

Question 28

Outline the Transformations That Occur due to Globalisation

Answer 28

• Changes in the Concept of Time and Space: Developments like the mobile phone, satellite TV and the internet means that global communication is virtually instantaneous, whilst mass travel allows us to experience a greater range of other cultures through tourism.
• Economic Markets and Production in Different Countries: Becoming more interdependent due to the growth in international trade, the NIDL, the growing influence of TNCs and the global dominance of IGOs like the WTO.
• Increasing Cultural Interaction: Due to developments in mass media (TV, film, music, sports, news), we can encounter and consume new ideas and experiences from a wide range of cross-cultural sources, in fields such as fashion, literature and food.

Question 29

Outline the Shared World Problems in the topic globalisation

Answer 29

• Economic: We are becoming much more aware of economic decisions that may lead to unemployment, or debt for peasant workers continents away.The EAT crash 1997-98 led to unemployment in the UK.
• Environmental: Chernobyl (1986) showed that ecological disasters don’t respect national boundaries - it even affected areas of Wales and the Lake District. Deforestation and cc affects everyone in the world.
• Other Common Problems: World-wide health problems such as AIDS, as well as international drug trafficking, and the sort of international terrorism that occured during 9/11.

Question 30

Outline Hyper Globalists as a The Different Perspectives on Globalisation

Answer 30

Regard globalisation as revolutionary:
* Massive shift in global power.
* N-Ss will end up being obsolete, as are internal and Westphalian sovereignty.
* Cannot disentangle or separate a state from the consequences of globalisation.
* A borderless world is being created.
* Nations-State borders are more permeable than ever.
* States have been ‘hollowed out’ by globalisation (as Philip Bobbitt argues).

This perspective implies the creation of a world government:
* All political decision-making is centralised.
* One supranational authority to run the world.
* Sovereignty removed from N-Ss and pooled to a central authority.
* Individuals are ‘citizens of the world’ (cosmopolitan).

Question 31

Outline Optimistic Globalists as a The Different Perspectives on Globalisation

Answer 31

Globalisation is having positive consequences:

• Emergence of responsible world organisations.
• Move towards global culture promotes tolerance and responsibility.
• Move towards global economy promotes useful and much-needed connections, through which progress and prosperity is achieved for citizens - everyone wins

Question 32

Outline Pessimistic Globalists as a The Different Perspectives on Globalisation

Answer 32

Globalisation is a form of Western imperialism:

• A superficial culture is spreading (Coca-Colonisation and McDonaldization).
• N-Ss and local cultures are being eroded by a global cultural hegemony and a global economic hegemony.
• Neoliberal policies simply make it easier for Western companies to: Move into a poorer country.
• Take over local businesses.
• Extract natural resources.
• Pay local people low wages.
• Leave behind a trail of pollution.

Foxconn produces Apple products cheaply in China, and have put mesh wire on the windows to stop them jumping out. They work 34 hour shifts.

Question 33

Define Intergovernmentalism

Answer 33

Intergovernmentalism: states agreeing to work together in their own best interests. E.g. the UN (only there to protect sovereignty).

Question 34

Define Supranationalism

Answer 34

Supranationalism: states give up sovereignty to international bodies. E.g. the EU (Factortame).

Question 35

Outline Traditionalist in Globalisation

Answer 35

Globalisation is not really occurring:

• Trade is not truly global, it’s more with regional blocs.
• Billions are too poor to participate in western-style consumption. Some countries remain cut-of (Iran, NK).
• China exists behind a ‘firewall’, e.g. internet censorship.

Capitalism has been an international phenomenon for hundreds of years - globalisation is merely a continuation (or evolution) of capitalist production and trade.

Question 36

Outline Transformationalists in Globalisation

Answer 36

Globalisation has been exaggerated by optimistic/pessimistic globalists. It is not merely the decline of the N-S.

Globalisation should be understood as a complex set of interconnecting relationships through which power is exercised indirectly. The process can be reversed and controlled.

• Globalisation does not signal decline of the N-S.
• States adapt to the challenges of globalisation.
• States retain the right to determine bilateral trade deals.
• It is possible to reverse the trend of globalisation.
• It is possible to control and temper the impact of globalisation.

Question 37

Outline the responses to Globalisation

Answer 37

1. We may mix global ingredients to produce new fused inventions (creolisation).
2. Our knowledge of the world may heighten our awareness and loyalty to local cultures.
3. Some religious and ethnic groups may reject globalisation, as they see it as Western imperialism.
4. May select from the world only what pleases us, and then adapt it to our local culture or needs (glocalisation).
5. Global communications means people cannot avoid seeing world events, or acknowledging that we live in a world full of risk. Could help broaden our identities, especially if championing a global cause like cc. This could explain the rise of the anti-globalisation movement.

Question 38

Is Globalisation Actually Occurring?

Answer 38

Neo-Marxists and traditionalists tend to overfocus on economic globalisation, neglecting the globalisation of culture. They also tend to view globalisation as a one-way process, and as a form of cultural imperialism - that will inevitably lead to a dystopia.

Pessimistic globalisers fear that we’re turning into a ‘McWorld’, in which cultures and consumption will be standardised. But evidence so far suggests that hybridity (cultural mixing), rather than uniformity may be the outcome of global cultural change. Globalisation might lead to better HR, education, communication and multiculturalism.

But globalisation is still a new phenomenon, and globalisation so far has done little to diminish the blight of poverty and wretchedness which half the world live in.

Question 39

Outline the process of globalisation

Answer 39

A complex web of interconnectedness: driven by the interlinking of people (social), countries, institutions, culture, economics, technology and politics.

The example of America’s cocaine problem linking with Bolivia’s increased production of cocoa due to a fall in the demand for tin shows the interconnected nature of global economics on the USA - no state can be studied in isolation from the rest of the world.

Question 40

Outline The New International Division of Labour in the process of Globalisation

Answer 40

The movement of labour from the industrialised world to the developing world. Due to TNCs face rising labour costs, they seek cheap labour due to capitalism maximising profit.

• Positive Globalists argue that it’s a benefit for world consumers, by enhancing competition, thus keeping the price of goods low.
• Neo-Marxists argue that it’s neocolonialism, as a form of exploitation: Cash crops, and wage labourers in factories.
• Pessimistic Globalists share the concerns of neo-Marxists. It reduces unemployment in the West, and wages have to be kept low to work for TNCs.

Question 41

Outline Cultural Globalisation ‘McWorld

Answer 41

Cultural Globalisation ‘McWorld’
The McDonaldization of Society

Cultural globalisation is the ‘flattening out’ of differences in culture between countries. It is the process of increased interconnectedness between different countries and cultures, which is driven by increased communication and trade between them. Cultural globalisation is often seen as a positive force, as it encourages people to learn about and appreciate different cultures, and to share ideas and experiences. However, it can also lead to the homogenisation of cultures, as certain aspects of a culture may be lost or diluted in the process. Cultural diversity is replaced by cultural homogeneity. The world is increasingly a place where the same cultural commodities are consumed regardless of national borders. People listen to the same music, using the same technology, on the same devices. One in seven people on the planet is thought to have watched some of the 2014 Fifa World Cup final – a truly global event. The same brands can be bought throughout the world: McDonald’s, Coca-Cola, Apple iPhones, Nike sportswear and more. Their trademarks are instantly recognisable to a large proportion of the world’s population. The dynamic behind this process may be transnational corporations (TNCs) using their global economic power to further their reach and sell more products the world over by exploiting the benefits of economic development.

Linked to the cultural homogenisation (monoculture) brought about through economic globalisation, and the spread of consumerism and capitalism, is the spread of Western ideas such as democracy, respect for human rights and individualism. This transmission of values, ideas and meanings may be having an immense impact on global politics. Some see a certain inevitability about the spread of liberalism and its associated ideas around the world. For some this spread of ideas is a good thing, emphasising freedom, but for others cultural globalisation, consumerism and individualism are bad news for the environment, for local communities and traditions, and for individuals who are manipulated by the lure of consumer products. For these critics, the only winners in globalisation are the USA, the West and the TNCs that lead the cultural globalisation march.

Question 42

Outline Trans-national corporations and give examples

Answer 42

TNCs are another example of globalisation. They operate in many countries and are genuinely international. They’re competitive, and are geographically mobile.
* Responsible for three-quarters of world trade, and one-third of economic outputs.
* 130 N-Ss have economies smaller than the top 50 TNCs.
They tend to exercise power without responsibility, acting immorally and illegally.

Examples:
* Shell in Nigeria and RTZ in Angola have exploited natural resources. The locals have their land seized, often by force, and with considerable protest.
* Sweatshops have been critcisied for having child labour and exploitative wages.
* TNCs cause ecological damage in countries like Nigeria with oil etc.
* Some evidence that TNCs have interfered in the internal politics of developing countries, and have even financed military coups against leaders they don’t like.
* TNCs develop tastes in developing nations in a negative way.

Question 43

Outline Global controls in the process of Globalisation

Answer 43

Actions of TNCs shows a lack of global constraints by governments and IGOs.
* No IL to regulate their activities, despite HR infringements.

Globalisation gives the opportunity for cross-border crime (estimated at $500bil/year).
* This includes drug trafficking, people smuggling, arms sales. Drug trafficking caused by poverty, and the international trading system, which means that farmers turn to drug production.

It Leads to more white collar crime, due to open borders and the internet. Drug money is laundered internationally, through illegitimate banking organisations. Violence takes place internationally, as drug gangs compete for global dominance. Terrorism works beyound national boundries, recruiting from all over the world

Question 44

Outline The IMF and the World Bank

Answer 44

The IMF was originally created to prevent a repeat of the Great Depression and the subsequent world war, by ensuring that all countries had demand and stability. It provides loans to ensure a collective effort for stability. It follows the neoliberal WC, using SAPs to force austerity onto countries that want an IMF loan.

The IMF used to be Keynesian - but after the arrival of Thatcher and Reagan in the early 1980s, they became much more neoliberal. Anne Krueger was made the Chief Economist of the WB in 1981. She argues that government is the problem, not the solution. Free markets would solve the problems of developing countries (market fundamentalism).

The WB starting giving out neoliberal loans in the 1980s. The IMF had to approve the loans, hence the rise of neoliberal SAPs. The IMF has strayed from its original role of creating economic stability to helping the developing world. They are trying to gain more control and power.

Question 45

Outline The Failures of the IMF

Answer 45

The ILO argues that the IMF fails to focus on workers’ rights. The ADB argues for ‘competitive pluralism’, where developing countries have alternative strategies for development, e.g. the promotion of new technologies. It has not provided funds for countries in an economic downturn, has failed to create employment and has failed to prevent economic crises from spreading. Although crises have become more infrequent, they have become worse.

The SAPs that the IMF push create instability. The poor are often left off worse, creating a fall in demand. The IMF has failed to help countries transition from communism to free markets. Rapid trade liberalisation forces developing nations to open up to imports that compete with local industries. This destroys jobs and forces many into poverty. It ruins local industry before it has a chance to develop.

They’re unprepared to compete at a global level yet. Successful IMF loans require sequencing: reforms are done in order and at the correct pace. This is often the reason why IMF loans fail, because markets are opened up too rapidly, and so more jobs are destroyed than created.

EAT crisis 1997-98 made worse by the IMF SAPs in Indonesia and Thailand. Argentina has had over 10% unemployment since 1995. Afghanistan’s employment has only increased since their 2001 loan.

At the IMF and WB, finance ministers and central bank governors speak for their countries. At the WTO, trade ministers speak for their countries. This means that they do not consider negative social impacts etc. All they care about is increasing trade, and opening up their markets for new products. At the IMF and WB, they simply want to protect their financial firms - they are only interested in preserving the financial sector. They see the world as the financial community sees it. They act only in their interest, which is a poor way to govern a country.