Global Governance : Political and Economics

Question 1

Outline the UN

Answer 1

The United Nations is the principial global intergovernmental organisation. It was founded in 1945 and has 193 member states. It has a large range of responsibilities and powers, its original role was to promote global peace and security but it has vastly expanded this to include economic development work, human rights promotion, humanitarian work and social progress

Question 2

Outline the Security Council

Answer 2

The UNSC is the UN’s supreme decision-making body on matters of international peace and security. It is able to issue binding resolutions under international law. It is headed by the Secretary General and has 5 permanent members who can all use a permanent veto to block things going through the Security Council

Question 3

Outline NATO

Answer 3

The North Atlantic Treaty Organisation is a military alliance established during the Cold War between the USA and its allies in Western Europe to prevent the speed of communism. It has expanded its remit since the Cold War to remain a significant security alliance but also conduct peace enforcement o operations and acting as a defence against modern day threats

Question 4

Outline IMF

Answer 4

The International Monetary Fund is an institution of global economic governance, established following the Bretton Woods conference. It aims to offer global financial stability by offering technical advice, support and loans to its 189 member states.

Question 5

Outline World Bank

Answer 5

Also established under the Bretton Woods system, and also an institution of global economic governance, the World Bank focuses on long-term development and provides conditional loans to developing countries. It has been the key institution involved in debt relief.

Question 6

Outline the World Trade Organisation

Answer 6

The WTO was a successor to GATT (General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), which was also rooted in the Bretton Woods System. It has a membership of 164 States and is designed to facilitate free trade by encouraging global trade deals and resolving trade disputes between member states.

Question 7

Outline G7/G20

Answer 7

these are international forums based on the top 7/8/20 wealthiest countries as well as the EU) respectively. The G20, unlike the G7 includes countries from both the developed and developing world. The G8 became the G7 when Russia was removed after its invasion of Ukraine.

Question 8

Outline what the dependency Theory is

Answer 8

This theory is based on the idea that poor countries (periphery countries) are reliant/dependant on richer countries (the core countries) who exploit them. This exploitation is rooted in historical inequalities between the countries such as colonialism.

Question 9

Outline what the North South Divide is

Answer 9

This was based on the idea of the Brandt line, that there was a stark divide between the wealthy rich countries in the global north and the poor under developed countries in the global south.

Question 10

Outline NGO

Answer 10

Non-Governmental Organisations are not-for profit organisations that are independent from States and IGOs and are engaged in a wide range of activities. Usually they get their funding from donations but some are primarily volunteer run.

Question 11

Outline SAP

Answer 11

Structural Adjustment Programmes are used as conditions of debt relief by countries receiving

Question 12

Outline WB/IMF loans/ debt relief

Answer 12

They are imposed on the country and have a neo-liberal agenda, meaning the recipient must adhere to conditions like spending cuts and privatisation in order to receive their loan/debt relief

Question 13

Outline Global Governance

Answer 13

The emergence of forms of international cooperation designed to ensure that there are decisions, rules & mechanisms of facilities the smooth working of the international community in the absence of a global authority able to impose order

Question 14

Give more detail into Global Governance and the processes

Answer 14

It is a multilevel process, operating as a result of interaction between groups & institutions at various levels
It is polycentric
It is multilateral- it involves collaboration between a range of actors- most obviously between states (this could be through formal intergovernmental institutions (IGOs), or involve informal cooperation sometimes to deal with specific issues). However, other non-state actors like NGOs & transnational corporations, also contribute to the evolution of global governance, for instance by drawing up coded of conduct over aspects like the use of child labour

Question 15

What would World Government be?

Answer 15

It is the concept of a single political authority with jurisdiction over all humanity, While global governance aims to containing the pressures

Question 16

Can you think of any specific examples of global governance for the following global issues

Answer 16

Conflict: e.g., De-nuclearization treaties, like the NPT
Poverty: The World Bank
Human Rights: European Convention of Human Rights, ICO
Environment: CO26, CO27, banning of the Passcode

Question 17

Outline what a Liberal View would be

Answer 17

‘might as well cooperate’
The international system creates opportunity for cooperation and contact
- Join in be a part of the community
- Be in a group which is morally beneficial
- always opportunity for goof things
- not opposed to war and the use of a force but they want to exhausts every other possible option
- Eu and Un

Question 18

Outline what a Realist view would be

Answer 18

• Conservatism - hoboism view
• only important actors are states
• Realism stresses conflict
• Realism -security-driven which involves conflict and arms
• sovereignty is the most important thing
• state is the most important
• don’t want to be interdependent

Question 19

What argument would you use for ‘Is global governance effective’

Answer 19

Globalisation has undermined the power of supposedly sovereign states to regulate matters traditionally considered to fall within their control such as European Union and NATO

Question 20

Outline arguments for whether global governance is effective

Answer 20

The ability of states to exercise control is challenged by the flow of information over the internet and the power of non-state actors- especially multinational cooperation’s & currency & bond traders etc. - 2011 Arab Spring

Some control over these forces can be regained by cooperation between states at regional or global level. It has been recognised that sometimes States can benefit more from pooling their sovereignty, etc. Co-ordinated international action was taken in 2009 to boost demand & rescue banks during the 2007-2009 global finical crisis

However, despite successes in some areas, global governance is often ineffective, let alone moving towards the ‘establishment of world government’

The organisation of global governance are mainly intergovernmental rather than supranational this is because states refuse to give up their sovereignty

A realist analyst would argue that this is inevitable in a world where nation states remain dominant- collaboration is possible, but states will ensure that it doesn’t go too far as to compromise their sovereignty. Realists sees states as preoccupied with relative gains

A liberal view would stress the gains to be made from collaboration and would argue that states are often willing to settle for settle absolute benefits because they do not feel threatened by their rivals

Question 21

Why is global governance so controversial

Answer 21

Critics argue that global governance undermines national sovereignty by transferring decision-making powers and authority to supernational institutions
Global governance is often criticised for perpetuating power imbalances among nations
Lack of accountability
Cultural and value differences
Can lead to a democratic deficit

Question 22

What are the advantages & disadvantages of intergovernmentalism

Answer 22

+ it respect the sovereignty of individual states allowing them to maintain control over their own decision-making processes and polices It also allows for flexibility in responding to changing circumstances and emerging issues
- Decision making process can be slow and complex due to the need for consensus among participants states which creates power imbalances as well as a lack of accountability

Question 23

What are the advantages & disadvantages of Supranationalism

Answer 23

+ leads to an enhanced cooperation and integration among nations as well. It promotes and aim is peace and stability among member states. It has economic benefits as it is facilitating regional trade, reducing barriers to commence
- One main criticism is the potential erosion of national sovereignty. Decision-making process may seem distant and detached from ordinary citizens . It can lead to a power imbalances of more dominant states

Question 24

Outline IGOs and SGOs and how they form the key bodies for global governance

Answer 24

An IGO is an inter-governmental organisation: they are controlled by governments rather than by institutions. It about group making agreements between themselves e.g. peacekeeping agreements

An SGOs are supra-governmental, this is where a certain amount of sovereignty/ democratic accountability is handed over, it is organisation as a whole e.g. the EU

Question 25

Give examples where State sovereignty prevails

Answer 25

• E.g. The EU has been threatened by nationalist movements and a backlash against supranationalism. Brexit demonstrated a reluctance, from Britain to have its sovereignty eroded and we have seen nationalist backlashes follow across Europe-characterised by anti-immigration sentiments such as Le Pen’s 2017 and 2022 election campaign in France
• E.g. The ongoing border disputes between India and Pakistan over the Kashmir region and the border tensions between Russia and Ukraine in Crimea illustrate how state sovereignty is upheld when countries assert their territorial claims and resist external interference.
• E.g. : The United States’ imposition of tariffs on certain imports, such as steel and aluminium, as part of its trade policy under the Trump administration, demonstrates how states can exercise their economic sovereignty to protect domestic industries and pursue their own economic interests.

Question 26

Give examples where International Cooperation prevails

Answer 26

• E.g. The development and distribution of COVID-19 vaccines involve international cooperation. Organizations like COVAX, which includes countries and organizations working together, aim to ensure equitable access to vaccines globally. Pharmaceutical companies from different countries collaborated on vaccine research and production.
• E.g. The Paris Agreement is a prime example of international cooperation. Signed by 197 countries, it sets targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions to combat climate change. Countries work together to meet these goals through shared commitments and initiatives.
• E.g. The EU has maintained a strong despite the Uk’s withdrawal and has united to negotiate a Brexit deal that will benefit itself. While there have been nationalist movements they haven’t prevailed in the same way elsewhere in Europe (e.g. LE Pen was defeated by Macron

Question 27

Briefly Outline what the Untied Nations is and there aims

Answer 27

The Un was established in 1945 after the atrocities of WW2. There was a widespread global feeling that more needed to be done to ensure peace and stability

Liberals argue that the Un is an example of the benefits of collaboration and co-operation because of
- Collective security and peace
- A forum for discussion
- An international community
- Smaller powers can gain leverage by acting together

Question 28

Outline what the UN charter is

Answer 28

The 1945 United Nations Charter, also known as the UN Charter, is the foundational document of the United Nations, an international organization established after World War II to promote international peace, security, cooperation, and development. There are 50 countries signed to the UN Charter.

Question 29

What were the original aims of the UN Charter

Answer 29

To Maintain International Peace and Security: One of the primary purposes of the United Nations is to prevent conflicts and promote the peaceful resolution of disputes among nations.

To Foster Friendly Relations Among Nations: The UN Charter emphasizes the importance of promoting friendly and cooperative relations among member states.

To Promote International Cooperation: The United Nations aims to facilitate cooperation among countries in addressing a wide range of international issues, including economic development, social progress, human rights, and humanitarian concerns.

Question 30

Outline the organs of the Un and how they are organised and what their key functions are

Answer 30

General Assembly (GA):

Organization: The General Assembly is composed of all 193 member states, each represented by one delegation.
Key Functions:
Deliberation and Decision-Making: The General Assembly serves as the main deliberative body of the UN. It discusses and makes recommendations on a wide range of international issues, including peace and security, development, and human rights.
Budget Approval: It approves the UN budget and assesses the financial contributions of member states.
Elects Non-Permanent Security Council Members: The General Assembly elects non-permanent members of the UN Security Council.
International Law: It plays a role in the development and codification of international law through the adoption of resolutions and declarations.
Special Sessions: The General Assembly can convene special sessions to address urgent matters.
Security Council (SC):

Organization: The Security Council consists of 15 members, including five permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) with veto power and ten non-permanent members elected by the General Assembly for two-year terms.
Key Functions:
Peace and Security: The Security Council is responsible for maintaining international peace and security. It can authorize sanctions, peacekeeping missions, and the use of military force to address threats to peace.
Conflict Resolution: It addresses conflicts and disputes among states, often through diplomatic negotiations and mediation.
International Criminal Court Referrals: The Security Council can refer cases to the International Criminal Court (ICC) related to war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide.
Peacekeeping: It establishes and oversees UN peacekeeping missions in conflict zones.
International Court of Justice (ICJ):

Organization: The ICJ is the principal judicial organ of the UN, consisting of 15 judges elected by the General Assembly and the Security Council.
Key Functions:
Adjudication: The ICJ settles legal disputes between states based on international law. Its decisions are binding on the parties involved.
Advisory Opinions: It provides advisory opinions to UN bodies and specialized agencies on legal questions.
Secretariat:

Organization: The Secretariat is headed by the Secretary-General, who is appointed by the General Assembly based on the recommendation of the Security Council. It includes various departments and offices.
Key Functions:
Administration: It manages the day-to-day operations of the UN, including budgeting, personnel, and logistics.
Mediation and Diplomacy: The Secretary-General plays a diplomatic role, engaging in conflict prevention, mediation, and peacemaking efforts.
Information and Communication: It facilitates communication between UN bodies, member states, and the public.
Research and Analysis: The Secretariat conducts research and provides analysis to support decision-making by UN organs.
Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC):

Organization: ECOSOC consists of 54 member states elected by the General Assembly.
Key Functions:
Development: It promotes international economic and social cooperation and development efforts.
Coordination: ECOSOC coordinates the work of UN specialized agencies, funds, and programs in various areas, including health, education, and humanitarian assistance.
Policy Recommendations: It provides policy recommendations and guidance on economic, social, and environmental issues.

Question 31

How does the UNSC rotate

Answer 31

The UNSC has 5 permanent members (the Uk, France, the USA, Russia and China) that remain in every rotation. There are an additional 10 members on the Security Council, these rotate (5 at a time) every 2 years . So each year 5 members are swapped out and 5 remain in. The 5 new seats are voted on by the General Assembly, with at least a 2/3 majority
These 10 non-permanent members are split into the following regional blocks (to ensure better global representation)
Africa (3 seats)
Asia (2 seats)
Latin America and the Caribbean ( 2seats)
Western Europe and the ‘others; ( 2 seats

Question 32

Why are there calls for reform of the UNSC membership

Answer 32

The Un and specifically the UNSC have come under significant criticism for their response to the war in Syria which began in 2011

Question 33

What are the main options for reform

Answer 33

• There have been call for Newley risen, and some long-established, powers to be included as permeant members
• Amendment to the the UN Charter
• New permanent members with veto power / don’t have it
• remove veto power from some or all of the current permeant
• Increasing the number of non-permeant meter

Question 34

Outline the History of the UN

Answer 34

Pre-UN Origins:

League of Nations (1919): The precursor to the UN, the League of Nations, was established after World War I with the goal of promoting international cooperation and preventing future conflicts. It had limited success and disbanded in 1946.
World War II and the Atlantic Charter (1939-1941):

World War II (1939-1945): The devastation of World War II underscored the need for a more effective international organization to prevent future conflicts.

The Atlantic Charter (1941): In August 1941, U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill issued the Atlantic Charter, outlining their vision for a post-war world based on self-determination, disarmament, and the rule of law.

Dumbarton Oaks Conference (1944):

Representatives from the United States, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and China met in Washington, D.C., to discuss the structure of a future international organization. This conference laid the foundation for the UN Charter.
Yalta and San Francisco Conferences (1945):

Yalta Conference (February 1945): The leaders of the Allied powers (Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin) discussed the structure of the post-war world, including the creation of the United Nations.

San Francisco Conference (April-June 1945): Delegates from 50 countries convened in San Francisco to draft the UN Charter. The Charter was signed on June 26, 1945.

UN Charter and Establishment (1945):

The UN Charter was ratified by the required number of countries, including the five permanent members of the Security Council, and entered into force on October 24, 1945.
Early Years and the Cold War (1945-1991):

The UN focused on post-war reconstruction, humanitarian assistance, and decolonization efforts.
The onset of the Cold War strained relations between the United States and the Soviet Union, leading to a series of Security Council vetoes and tensions within the UN.
Decolonization and Expansion (1950s-1960s):

The UN played a key role in decolonization, helping newly independent nations gain recognition.
Membership expanded significantly as more countries joined the UN.
Peacekeeping Operations (1950s-Present):

The UN conducted its first peacekeeping operation in 1948 during the Arab-Israeli conflict and has since been involved in numerous peacekeeping missions worldwide.
End of the Cold War and Reform (1980s-1990s):

The end of the Cold War improved the prospects for UN cooperation and led to reforms within the organization.
The UN Security Council underwent changes, and the UN played a pivotal role in resolving conflicts, such as the Gulf War.
Humanitarian Work and Development (2000s-Present):

The UN has focused on humanitarian assistance, sustainable development, climate change, and poverty reduction.
The Millennium Development Goals (2000-2015) and the subsequent Sustainable Development Goals (2015-present) set global development targets.
Challenges and Crises (2000s-Present):

The UN has faced challenges related to peacekeeping failures, humanitarian crises, and the need for reform.
Key events include conflicts in Syria, the refugee crisis, and efforts to address climate change.
COVID-19 Pandemic (2020-Present):

Question 35

Outline the Importance of the Cold War in the Un’s history

Answer 35

Despite the principle of sovereign equality, from the start the UN reflected the reality of world politics, eg the most powerful states dominated it, & the hope was that together they could bring enormous pressure to bear on troublemakers.

The Cold War prevented the UN from acting as originally intended. The UN was unable to act as originally intended for most of its first 50 years, as the Cold War polarized the world between the two blocs: The Security Council was polarised and cooperation between the leading powers to prevent breaches of peace was impossible. Both sides used the veto to protect their client states from criticism or sanctions

• Agreement between the permanent members was now impossible & both superpowers used the veto to protect their clients from criticism or sanctions. Action against breaches of the peace were largely impossible the only exception was the Korean War - as the USSR had temporarily withdrawn from the UNSC when the war broke out in 1950, the US was able to get the UNSC’s support for intervention to stop the N Korean invasion of the South. As well as voting on ideological lines, members also voted on regional lines, which has continued to the present - e.g. Britain found little sympathy from Latin American states when Argentina invaded the Falklands in 1982, but had the backing of EU members.
• Far from contributing to peace, the UN became a battleground for Cold War tensions, with each side using as a forum for their propaganda & attacks on their rivals. The only exception was the Korean War in 1950, when the absence of the USSR enabled the Security Council to take Chapter 7 action against N Korea after it invaded South Korea

Question 36

Why was collective security difficult to establish during the Cold War

Answer 36

Instead, peacekeeping’ was developed as a means of resolving conflicts
This meant that wars could be brought to an end by separating the 2 sides with a small UN force
* However, this glossed over the original aim of acting against aggressors, and couldn’t prevent wars starting in the first place
* The end of the Cold War raised hopes that the UN could finally act as originally intended - these hopes were to be dashed in the 1990s

Question 37

Outline the rise of southern influence in the Un

Answer 37

• The growth of member states (51 in 1945, 193 in 2012) has increased the influence of the South at the UN
  Another major development influencing the UN has been the huge increase in member states - from 51 in 1945 to 193 in 2011.
  There was an increase as this trend emerged due to decolonization, shifts in global power dynamics
• This added North - South tensions to East - West ones, and meant the UN’s priorities began to shift
• ‘Third World’ states were successful in getting the UN to respond to their priorities - decolonisation and economic and social development.

Question 38

What tensions was caused by the expansion of the UN

Answer 38

The expansion of the UN set North-South tensions alongside the East-West ones of the Cold War, showing one of the weaknesses of IGOs - they tend to become battlegrounds for national interests rather than finding common agendas.

Question 39

What was the effect of the southern states organising like blocks during the expansion of the UN

Answer 39

The Southern states, organising in blocs like the G77, were able to force issues important to them - decolonization, trade, development - up the UN’s agenda, especially in bodies like the UN Conference on Trade & Development (UNCTAD). However, they were unable to force the richer countries to meet their demands for aid, debt relief & more favourable trade conditions and in the 1980s & 1990s, US frustration at what was perceived as the UN’s anti-US & anti-western slant led it to withhold some of its contributions to UN budgets (as well as pulling out of UNESCO completely).
* New organisations were set up like the UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD), where they acted together as the G77 (NB Now 131 members) to press for concessions from the rich countries
An example is the G77’s call for a New International Economic Order’ (NIEO) in the 1960s and 1970s (large-scale debt relief, aid transfers etc). The G77 was able to force the rich countries to listen, but not to make them transfer power and resources - the NIEO was a failure

Question 40

When where tensioned relieved between northern and southern countries in the Un

Answer 40

Some of these tensions subsided as the collapse of the USSR both reduced the South’s ability to play off the superpowers & encouraged many states to move towards more market-oriented economies.
The Northern countries also pledged to transfer more resources to the poorer Southern countries, for instance at the 2005 G8 Summit. Nevertheless, the UN can still be a forum where Southern resentment is expressed about the role of the US and the power of the rich North - for instance President Chavez of Venezuela called Bush ‘the devil’ in his address to the General Assembly in 2006. In recent years China & Russia have been successful in increasing their support among developing countries at the expense of the US & EU, for instance over human rights issues.
* The poorer countries can win votes at the UN, but ultimately power lies with the rich countries who control the Security Council and pay most of the UN budget
- The increasingly anti-Western slant of the UN angered the US, which began to withhold some of its financial contributions in the 1980s - by the 1990s its arrears ranged between $1 - $2 bn; it also left UNESCO, cutting its budget by 25%

Question 41

Give some programmes run by the Un directly

Answer 41

Programmes run by the UN directly these mainly provide aid for the South. They are overseen by the General Assembly’s Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) and include:
UN Children’s Fund (UNICEF)
Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) UN Development Programme (UNDP)
UN Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)

Question 42

Give some autonomous agencies linked to the Un

Answer 42

Autonomous agencies linked to the UN but allowed virtually complete freedom of action. The five largest are:
* Food & Agriculture Organisation (FAO)
* UN Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO)
*International Labour Organisation (ILO)
* United Nations educational , Scientific & Cultural Organisation (UNESCO)

Question 43

Outline Some Case Studies Into the Un

Answer 43

The WHO plays many important roles - for instance, its network of scientists act as a key defence against SARS, Swine Flu, Ebola etc. Like other organisations, it can be drawn into
political disputes between states - for instance, Arab countries refuse to allow Israel to participate in WHO regional activities in the Middle East. The WHO can also be held back by a lack of resources and its reliance on governments to support its campaigns. Its AIDS campaign depends on national governments to spread information about AIDS and implement policies to limit its spread, but some are frightened to give full statistics and some have religious/cultural objections to promoting sex education. The richer countries that give the South assistance for the fight against AIDS prefer to give it directly to governments they approve of, rather than giving it to the WHO to spend where it is most needed.

UNESCO became a North-South battlefield in the 1980s and was criticised (especially by Britain and the USA) for being inefficient and wasteful, with excessive spending on its HQ. It was also argued that it was too political, promoting disarmament and anti-Israeli attitudes in its educational work. A low point came when it adopted the G77 Countries’ proposal for a “New World Information & Communication order’’ supposedly meant to correct distorted reporting of the South in the Western-dominated global media - the US claimed this amounted to censorship of the media (which the US dominates; one proposal was that the press could be forced to print government articles to correct “errors”). In 1984 the US withdrew (followed by Britain), taking 25% of UNESCO’s funding with it - on the face of it the G77 had won, but UNESCO was now starved of funds. Recognising the need for US cooperation (especially with the end of the Cold War), the G77 dropped NWICO in 1990, and UNESCO changed radically under a new Director General from 1987 (two-thirds of staff cut, budgets frozen); it now champions press freedom, criticising member states who arrest journalists. Britain re-joined in 1997 - but hostility to the UN in Congress continued to keen the US (and its funds) out In 2003 Bush announced that the US

Question 44

What were the original ideas of peacekeeping in the Un

Answer 44

Peacekeeping isn’t in the UN Charter at all. The original assumptions in 1945 were that.
The role of the Un would be to resolve conflicts between states, not internal conflicts - and certainty not against the will of the govenrment concerned (ruled out by Article 7)

The Un would either seek to settle disputes between states by mediation (chapter 6) or would identify an aggressor and use sanctions - including military force- to restore peace (chapter 7)

Member states would hold military forces on standby for Un enforcement operations effectively, there would be a UN army directed by the Un Military Staff Committee

Question 45

What might be the drawbacks of the way of raising forces for Un Operation

Answer 45

It would cause countries to pull there troops together and troops may end up withdrawing
Countries could veto power could use democratic peace theory

Question 46

What is the role of observers and peacekeepers

Answer 46

Peacekeeprs protect civilians, activiley rpevent conflict, reduce conflict

Question 47

Outline the Development of the Un Peacekeeping

Answer 47

The Canadian in 1956 after Suez proposed for the creation of the peacekeeping force
There key principles that were required was
- Party’s in conflict have to accept that there is going to be UN peacekeeping
- A cease fire must be in place
- Peacekeepers will not use force expect for in self defence

Congo, Lebanon and Cyprus have been sent some peacekeepers

The Un peacekeepers were not given the mandate or resources to peacekeepers - 0.5%

Question 48

What does the term ‘multidimensional peacekeeping mean’

Answer 48

They are designed to maintain peace and security, the political process, protect civilians

Question 49

Why is there pressure for the reform of the Un

Answer 49

Despite the good work in areas like peacekeeping and humanitarian aid that the Un continues to have many observers see the UN as in crisis and badly needing reform. The reasons are varied and longstanding, but have become more urgent in recent years

Question 50

What are some of the issues of the UN

Answer 50

Representation - countries feel that the current Un structure, particularly the composition of the security council, does not accurately reflect he contemporary world order. Still mirrors power dynamics with the P5 having veto power however a lot of their Asia and Latin America, and Asia are underrepresented

Waste and corruption- Financial Transparency: Concerns about financial mismanagement and lack of transparency within the UN’s budget and operations have led to demands for reform. Member states and donors want to ensure that their contributions are used efficiently and effectively.

Scandals and Misconduct: Instances of corruption, fraud, and misconduct within UN agencies or peacekeeping missions have eroded trust in the organization. Reform is seen as necessary to prevent such occurrences and hold those responsible accountable.

Inefficiency and Bureaucracy: Critics argue that the UN can be slow and bureaucratic, leading to inefficiencies and waste. Reform efforts aim to streamline processes and make the organization more responsive to global challenges.

Funding - Inequitable Burden: Some member states argue that the current funding structure places an inequitable burden on a few countries, particularly developed nations. They believe that a more equitable distribution of funding should be established.

Budget Constraints: As the UN takes on more responsibilities and faces global challenges like climate change, peacekeeping, and humanitarian crises, there is growing pressure to secure additional funding to meet these demands.

Transparency and Accountability: Calls for reform often include demands for greater transparency and accountability in how UN funds are allocated and spent. Some member states want clearer oversight mechanisms.

Peacekeeping and humanitarian interventions - Effectiveness: Some critics argue that the UN’s peacekeeping and humanitarian interventions have not always been as effective as they should be. There have been instances of inadequate response, failure to prevent conflicts, and challenges in delivering aid efficiently.

Accountability: Concerns exist regarding the accountability of UN peacekeepers and humanitarian personnel. Instances of misconduct, including sexual exploitation and abuse by peacekeepers, have raised questions about the UN’s ability to hold individuals and missions accountable for their actions.

Adaptation to Modern Challenges: The nature of conflicts and humanitarian crises has evolved. New challenges, such as cyber threats, non-state actors, and complex conflicts, require the UN to adapt its approaches and capabilities to effectively address these issues.

UNSC- Representation: The current composition of the UNSC is seen as outdated and not reflective of the contemporary world order. It was designed after World War II, and many argue that it doesn’t accurately represent the geopolitical realities of today. Countries like India, Brazil, Germany, and Japan, among others, seek permanent seats on the UNSC to reflect their global importance.

Fairness and Equity: Many nations feel that the current structure, with five permanent members (P5) having veto power, is unfair and undemocratic. This concentration of power can lead to decisions that don’t consider the interests of the majority of UN member states.

Effectiveness: Some argue that the UNSC’s effectiveness in addressing global conflicts and crises is hindered by its current structure. Veto power can lead to gridlock and inaction on critical issues.

The attitude of the USA - Differing Foreign Policy Objectives: The USA, under both the Bush and Trump administrations, pursued foreign policy objectives that sometimes clashed with the UN’s principles and decisions. This misalignment led to calls for reform to make the UN more adaptable and responsive to changing global dynamics.

Unilateral Action: The Bush administration’s decision to invade Iraq in 2003 without explicit UN authorization raised concerns about the UN’s effectiveness in preventing unilateral actions by powerful nations. This fueled demands for reforms to strengthen the UN’s authority and prevent such actions in the future.

Budgetary Concerns: The USA is a significant contributor to the UN budget. Criticisms about how UN funds were being allocated and concerns about inefficiencies prompted discussions about financial reforms and transparency within the organization.

Question 51

What are some of the Proposals for reforming the UN

Answer 51

In 2004 Annan set up a panel to consider how the UN should respond to global threats to restore its credibility in the aftermath of Iraq. On the basis of its findings, he produced a report in March 2005, which made a number of bold recommendations, including reform of the Security Council, more cooperation against terrorism (which is defined: “any action constitutes terrorism if it is intended to cause death or serious bodily harm to civilians or non-combatants with the purpose of intimidating a population or compelling a government or an international organisation to do or abstain from doing any act) & creating a peace-building organisation to supervise the transition from war to peace. He also proposed acceptance by the UN of ‘the responsibility to protect’ (see box), consideration of the need for pre-emptive action against threats & the creation of a new Human Rights Council to replace the discredited Human Rights Commission, with a smaller membership chosen by the General Assembly

Question 52

Make Conclusions about the Un

Answer 52

In conclusion, the UN is indispensable: no single power or group of powers would or could take on all of its peacekeeping role and its economic and social work - for instance, in coordinating the response to AIDS or global warming - has to be done by a global body comprising all states, so that the UN would have to be invented if it didn’t exist. However, even though the UN is far from perfect, ultimately responsibility for its success rests with its members - it can only be as effective as they are prepared to allow it to be.
In the unipolar world of the recent past, much has depended on the organisation’s relationship with the US. However, as the international system becomes more multipolar, this will have profound consequences for the UN. A multipolar world without one hegemon able to impose order may be more multilateral, as liberals would hope, with the leading states willing to act collectively to deal with threats to peace. Alternatively, a more pessimistic view would be that a multipolar world will be one of inter-great power rivalry, with the UN unable to the mediate successfully & banished to the side-lines, like the League of Nations.

Question 53

Outline for and against for Has the Un has been a success or a failure?

Answer 53

Arguments for the UN’s Success:

Promotion of Peace: The primary goal of the UN is to maintain international peace and security, and it has played a crucial role in preventing major conflicts between major powers since its inception. The absence of another world war involving major powers can be attributed in part to the UN’s efforts. One prominent example is its involvement in the peaceful resolution of the Iran Nuclear Deal, officially known as the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), in 2015.

Humanitarian Aid: The UN has been instrumental in providing humanitarian aid to regions affected by natural disasters, conflicts, and other crises. Agencies like UNICEF, the World Food Programme, and UNHCR have saved countless lives through their relief efforts.

Diplomacy and Conflict Resolution: The UN provides a platform for countries to engage in diplomacy and negotiate solutions to conflicts. Peacekeeping missions have been successful in some instances, such as in Cyprus and Sierra Leone, in helping to stabilize regions.

International Law: The UN has contributed to the development of international law, including the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and various treaties on issues like the environment, disarmament, and human rights.

Global Health Initiatives: Organizations like the World Health Organization (WHO), a UN agency, have been essential in addressing global health challenges, including the response to pandemics like HIV/AIDS and COVID-19.

Arguments against the UN’s Success:

Ineffectiveness in Preventing Major Conflicts: Critics argue that the UN has failed to prevent several major conflicts, including the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and more recently, the Syrian Civil War. The UN’s Security Council has been criticized for its inability to take decisive action in many cases due to veto powers.

Bureaucracy and Inefficiency: Some argue that the UN is overly bureaucratic, which can hinder its ability to respond quickly and effectively to crises. Red tape, corruption, and inefficiency in some UN agencies have also been cited as concerns.

Limited Enforcement Power: The UN lacks its military force and relies on member states to contribute troops to peacekeeping missions. This dependence can limit the UN’s ability to enforce its resolutions and maintain peace effectively.

Political Divisions: The UN is often criticized for being influenced by the political agendas of its most powerful member states. This can lead to bias in decision-making and hinder the organization’s ability to address pressing global issues.

Failure to Prevent Genocides: The UN has faced significant criticism for its inability to prevent genocides in places like Rwanda and Bosnia during the 1990s, raising questions about its effectiveness in protecting vulnerable populations.

In conclusion, whether the UN is considered a success or a failure depends on one’s perspective and the specific criteria used to evaluate it. The organization has made significant contributions to global peace, humanitarian aid, and diplomacy, but it has also faced serious challenges and shortcomings in certain areas. Ultimately, the UN’s effectiveness continues to be a subject of debate and scrutiny.

Question 54

Examples of Good peacekeeping

Answer 54

Cambodia, El Salvador, Guatemala

Question 55

Example of Bad Peacekeeping

Answer 55

Somalia, Rwandan and former Yugoslavia

Question 56

Outline In what circumstances can the UN play an effective peacekeeping role?

Answer 56

Arguments for the UN’s Effective Peacekeeping Role:

Conflict Resolution and Prevention: The UN can effectively intervene in conflicts when there is a genuine commitment to resolving the dispute peacefully. By providing a neutral platform for negotiations and diplomacy, the UN can help prevent conflicts from escalating.

Multinational Approach: Peacekeeping missions involving multiple countries can bring diverse skills, resources, and perspectives to address complex conflicts. The UN’s ability to mobilize international support and cooperation enhances its effectiveness.

Humanitarian Assistance: In humanitarian crises, the UN can provide critical aid and relief to affected populations, often in collaboration with humanitarian organizations. This helps mitigate suffering and contributes to stability.

Arguments against the UN’s Effective Peacekeeping Role:

Lack of Consent: When parties to a conflict do not genuinely agree to UN intervention or are unwilling to cooperate, the organization’s ability to play an effective role is compromised. In such cases, peacekeepers may become targets or be viewed as unwelcome.

Complexity of Conflicts: Some conflicts are deeply rooted in historical, ethnic, or political issues, making them extremely complex. The UN may struggle to address these underlying causes effectively, leading to ongoing instability.

Resource Constraints: The UN often faces limitations in terms of funding, personnel, and equipment. These constraints can hinder its ability to carry out comprehensive peacekeeping operations in complex environments.

In summary, the UN’s effectiveness in playing a peacekeeping role depends on various factors, including the consent of parties involved, the complexity of the conflict, available resources, and the organization’s ability to maintain impartiality and adapt to changing circumstances. While the UN has had successes in peacekeeping, it has also faced significant challenges and limitations in different contexts.