The Social Construction of the World

Question 1

What are institutional facts? How do they differ from brute facts?

Answer 1

Institutional facts are those which only exist because of the human values and meanings that have been proscribed to them, creating their existence. This contrasts with brute facts, which exist without humans providing meaning for them.

Question 2

What are the 3 lessons of constructivism?

Answer 2

• There are not pre-determined outcomes
• Humans can shape reality, we can construct meanings for objects that people follow
• Our existence is guided by social norms and rules, we do not have absolute agency. Our horizons are built by what we have collectively constructed.

Question 3

What are the 3 things that concern Constructivists?

Answer 3

• How people construct the world through social interaction
• Needing to explain change
• Considering historical and cultural contexts.

Question 4

How does Nicholas Onuf (and Constructivists by extension) believe the world is formed?

Answer 4

Onuf and Constructivists as a whole believe that the world is a social construction, forged by the interaction of actors with each other.

Question 5

How do Finnemore and Sikkink explain what norms are?

Answer 5

Finnemore and Sikkink explain norms to be ‘standards of appropriate behaviour of actors with a given identity’

Question 6

Explain the process through which norms are created according to Constructivists

Answer 6

Norms emerge through creation by ‘norm entrepreneurs’, who persuade others to adopt them. Norms then ‘cascade’, whereby others imitate those that have adopted these norms. Last of all, these are ‘internalised’ and accepted as being key to the international system.

Question 7

Explain how anarchy is a socially constructed concept for Constructivists (Wendt)

Answer 7

Anarchy is socially constructed in that states behave towards each other as though they exist in an anarchical society, hence constituting that they DO live in an anarchical society.

Question 8

How does Wendt perceive states’ actions to differ depending on who they are interacting with?

Answer 8

Wendt believes that states alter their actions based on who they are interacting with - interactions with allies differ from those with enemies. This cannot be explained by anarchy and power distributions, but instead by contexts and repeated interactions between states.

Question 9

Explain the concept of Hobbesian order

Answer 9

Hobbesian order sees norms in a system enforced by a credible and powerful enforcer (a Leviathan). This makes it determined that people follow them, as it is essential that they do so to create order and stability in a disordered and brutish world.

Question 10

Explain the concept of Lockean order

Answer 10

Lockean order revolves around laws being internalised through human nature (natural laws). States act on the basis of these norms due to them seeing this as being in their interests.

Question 11

Explain the concept of Kantian order

Answer 11

Kantian order sees states interacting in a friendly manner not due to them being required to act in this manner or because of any benefit, but due to them believing in it.

Question 12

Why is a state’s understanding of its own identity important in IR to Constructivists? Give examples

Answer 12

States’ understanding of themselves is significant in IR as this will shape how states choose to behave. States that see themselves as being strong and authoritative will act in that fashion for instance.

Question 13

What is the importance of repetition in the identities of states to Constructivists?

Answer 13

Repeated interactions between states are crucial to identity according to Constructivists, as identities can change but must do so over time to become accepted and embedded. This can only be achieved through repetition.

Question 14

What are the 3 steps to identity change as seen by Constructivists?

Answer 14

1 - End of consensus: perceptions and opinions of states and individuals are changed in intl. politics
2 - Denaturalisation of identity and opening of new possibilities: attitudes and interactions between actors shifts as identities change
3 - Altercasting: a new understanding and partnership is formed

Question 15

Explain how the relationship between the US and USSR changed through identity change, as promoted by Constructivists

Answer 15

In the beginning, Reagan saw Gorbachev as a communist, shaping his actions towards him and the USSR. This began to shift, and as Reagan changed this identifying of Gorbachev, peace and cooperation between the US and USSR increased, eventually cementing a new relationship based on being allies rather than enemies.

Question 16

What is the difference between conventional and critical constructivism?

Answer 16

Conventional constructivism adopts a positivist approach akin to that of Realism, seeing states as unit of analysis.
Critical constructivism focuses more so on norms, values, identity and discourse to understand identity. A social epistemology rather than a positivist one.

Question 17

What criticisms have been made of Wendt’s work?

Answer 17

Wendt’s work has been criticised for not observing the fact that states can have multiple identities depending on who they are engaging with. It also doesn’t recognise that states are often not unitary actors, instead having multiple different voices within them.

Question 18

How do Constructivists see anarchy being shaped within the international system?

Answer 18

Constructivists believe that POLITICAL rather than STRUCTURAL factors shape the international system and the anarchy within it. The actions and leaders of states are therefore crucial as opposed to the inbuilt rules of the international system.

Question 19

Explain Ian Hacking’s idea of the ‘looping effect’ and how this works with CONSTRUCTIVIST thought

Answer 19

Hacking believed that people’s understanding of another individual or state would shape their actions towards that other identity. IDENTITY IS VERY SIGNIFICANT IN HOW PEOPLE BEHAVE… and as such changes in identity can change behaviour.

Question 20

How was the Cold War not just an example of constructivism in practice but also something that could disprove Realist thinking?

Answer 20

The Cold War saw peaceful change eventually constructed over time by leaders and actors, culminating in a friendly relationship. This proved wrong the Realist logic that states would always seek power against each other within a condition of anarchy.

Question 21

Explain Karl Deutsch’s concept of a ‘security community’

Answer 21

Security communities can develop amid international anarchy, with states choosing to cooperate on particular issues to serve their interests. This cooperation develops further, reducing the uncertainty between states and alleviating the issues that lead to a security dilemma.

Question 22

Give an example of how socially constructed facts mean an object can have different meanings

Answer 22

In a military context, a nuclear warhead can be imbued with meaning - a US warhead is far less threatening to a Western country than a North Korean one due to the differing identities held by these states.

Question 23

How has the changing of norms been used in practice to create changed identities in the post-Cold War age? What institutions have been utilised for this? What sort of relationship has been produced?

Answer 23

The EU and NATO have admitted various members of the former Eastern Bloc to their groupings, as they wished to join the ‘Western Club’. This has seen Western norms imposed to change these states’ identities. This has created new relationships based on friendship rather than on enmity.

Question 24

How has NATO socialised particular principles into states through its continued existence and persisting values?

Answer 24

This can be seen through the expansion of the bloc to include other European allies post-war and then post-Cold War including Eastern bloc. This meant socialising the principles and norms of NATO into these countries to permit admission.