The Problem of Anarchy

Question 1

What is anarchy?

Answer 1

Anarchy is the lack of higher authority within international order - NOT A STATE OF CHAOS OR DISORDER, but a lack of a single, dominant power in a horizontally organised system

Question 2

What theories of IR tend to value the idea of anarchy the most highly?

Answer 2

Theories of Realism and Neorealism tend to believe most steadfastly in the principle of anarchy.

Question 3

What is the value of a state? How can this be spun on its head?

Answer 3

States are the highest power to which we have recourse in the international system. They are sovereign over their own territory.
However, states can persecute individuals, giving people no escape from such treatment.

Question 4

How has the value of states to people been exhibited in recent years? (Think supranational bodies)

Answer 4

Withdrawal from the EU by the UK has shown the value that people place on the nation state, favouring this ahead of supranational blocs. States as the main unit of study in IR!

Question 5

What are the key arguments of Realists? (Relating to units of study in IR, the actions of states, etc)

Answer 5

Realists believe that states are the key actors in IR, beyond which there is anarchy. Governments must not have consideration for other states, acting within whatever means necessary to protect their people: they have a RESPONSIBILITY! States seek power CONSTANTLY.

Question 6

What are the key distinctions between Realists and Neorealists?

Answer 6

Neorealists still see states as the main actors, without a central authority. However, global distributions of power guide states’ actions in Neorealism, as opposed to human nature in Realist thought. Neorealism also backs a hierarchical view of global states, rather than a horizontal view, while still maintaining anarchy.

Question 7

What do Realists see as being the driver of states’ actions? How do Neorealists differ on this?

Answer 7

Realists believe that human nature (specifically, a pessimistic, conservative view of human nature) drives the actions of states. However, and in a way linked, Neorealists believe that the global distribution of power influences how states act.

Question 8

Explain defensive realism. Who promotes these ideas?

Answer 8

Kenneth Waltz mainly promotes defensive realism. This values the maximisation of security and building strong defence against threats in an anarchical system.

Question 9

Explain offensive realism. Who mainly promotes these ideas?

Answer 9

Offensive realism is mainly promoted by John Mearsheimer. States seek to rationally maximise power against those around them, looking to become regional hegemons, pushing their power and territory as far as they can.

Question 10

Explain constructivist views on the identity of states. Give examples of this!

Answer 10

Constructivists believe that states can change their identity should they wish to by interacting differently with others.
EG: Glasnost Russia, US end to isolationism post WW2, China and opening up to rest of the world.

Question 11

Explain Wendt’s work ‘Anarchy is What States Make Of It’

Answer 11

Wendt seeks to argue that anarchy (whereby states must be fearful and aggressive against others) as posed by Realists is not inherent in the international system, but is constructed through repeated interaction and identities. The aggression and enmity stemming from anarchy can be intensified and relaxed based on states’ interactions with each other.

Question 12

Explain Liberalism’s outlook on the international system and the actions of states

Answer 12

Liberalism takes an optimistic view of people, and as such believes that states act rationally in anarchic conditions. Indeed, they also believe that anarchy can be tempered through Liberal intl. institutions that can create a peaceful and harmonious community.

Question 13

Explain the Liberal theory of interdependence

Answer 13

Liberals value the idea of interdependence - achieved through institutions, cooperation and shared activity that means states are reliant upon each other, hence reducing the potential for conflict.

Question 14

How is the notion of states being rational actors undermined by emotions? Give examples

Answer 14

States being rational actors is undermined by the fact that emotions often prevent humans from behaving rationally - we act on impulse.
This can be seen through Saddam Hussein’s refusal to allow weapons inspectors to search for WMDs and through Israel’s continued bombing of Gaza and attack on the Iranian embassy despite this fracturing the into coalition that supports them.

Question 15

Explain how nation states have been formed in the West

Answer 15

Western nation states were formed due to shared languages producing identity and culture which is shared, which then branches out into a government apparatus being constructed to bind together the people that share this identity.

Question 16

Explain the English School’s views on international SOCIETY. Whose idea was this?

Answer 16

International SOCIETY operates when constituent parts have shared identities, rules, norms, institutions, etc. When states agree and share these norms, this translates the international system into a SOCIETY. Hedley Bull’s idea from his text ‘The Anarchical Society

Question 17

What example is there of Solidarist attitudes shaping the present Western international system?

Answer 17

Solidarism can be linked to Western constrictions placed on non-Western states in order to fit within intl system. For instance, Japan post-WW2.

Question 17

Explain the English School’s internal debate between the Solidarist tradition and the Pluralist tradition

Answer 17

Pluralism envisages an international society with a more liberal, all encompassing standard of norms, identities, rules, institutions, whereas the Solidarist side of argument favours a highly constrained set of qualifiers to be a part of the international society

Question 18

How can the EU stand as an example of a solidarist international society?

Answer 18

The EU has strict entry and participation criteria, binding like-minded member states together into a political, economic, financial and legal union. If states refuse to meet these standards, they are barred from entry.

Question 19

How can English School ideas be seen through the regionalisation of economies? (Think tightening of economies and norms)

Answer 19

As regions tighten economic activities together, this creates a common identity and purpose between states (society), as well as allowing these regions to be ordered in the international system.

Question 20

How can English School thinking explain the changing of international society from liberal to post-liberal?

Answer 20

As institutions of the international system and society change under transition from liberal order to post-liberal, then what is valued to order international society will change: democracy, for instance, may fall in importance from a soft power perspective

Question 21

How are emerging powers challenging the current institutional frameworks that operate in international society? Why is this significant in English School thought?

Answer 21

Emerging powers are taking leadership of international system and challenging institutional frameworks currently set up - UN, G7, Bretton Woods, etc. This is significant to the English School as it is likely that new norms and institutions will be developed for International Society to follow. Shared norms CONSTITUTE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY.

Question 22

Explain the idea of the Prisoner’s Dilemma. How do Realists use this idea to prove certain things about states?

Answer 22

The Prisoner’s Dilemma means that in the IR context, 2 states do not know whether the other one will cooperate with them or defect (go against them). Both cooperating produces a moderate, mutually beneficial outcome, but one state defecting produces the BEST REWARD. This supposedly proves Realist theorising that in anarchy, states will seek their own best outcomes, usually to increase their own power.

Question 23

How can the Realist view of the Prisoner’s Dilemma be critiqued by Liberals and Constructivists respectively?

Answer 23

Liberals - when situations arise repeatedly with uncertainty about states, states will seek to cooperate more often as this is less risky than just one-offs.
Constructivists - over time, behaviours are understood more so and identities can change, positively shaping relationships.

Question 24

How can the Prisoner’s Dilemma be linked to security dilemmas and the outcomes under these?

Answer 24

The Prisoner’s Dilemma shows that a mutually beneficial outcome is produced by cooperation, yet this is not always the one with the greatest reward. As such, this can link to security dilemmas, whereby states pursue rewards by ramping up military confrontation, even if both can be served by a de-escalation.

Question 25

What examples are there of state sovereignty narratives returning to international relations?

Answer 25

Trump and ‘America First’, Brexit and ‘take back control’, China’s claims on Taiwan, China and Russia limiting NGO access.

Question 26

What forms of sovereignty does Roland Paris see rising as opposed to traditional ‘Westphalian’ concepts of sovereignty? Explain these

Answer 26

Roland Paris sees ‘extralegal’ and ‘organic’ sovereignty narratives arising opposed to Westphalian ones.
Extralegal - leaders acting outside of established rules. Instead, sovereignty is invested within a leader.
Organic - less formalised sovereignty, formed by the convergence of events that create nation states, consented by the people.

Question 27

Roland Paris sees Westphalian sovereignty as having largely collapsed… why does he believe this to be the case?

Answer 27

Paris believes Westphalian principles of non-intervention and individual sovereignty to have collapsed, now major powers ride roughshod over this, intervening on others and acting extra-legally.

Question 28

Amid the retreat of traditional ‘Westphalian’ sovereignty norms in the international system, what does Roland Paris envisage being the future for the international system and the power of great powers?

Answer 28

As Westphalian sovereignty retreats, Paris believes that the influence and power of great powers will increase over less powerful states, granting them greater licence to change the norms which govern the international system.

Question 29

How has Russia departed from Westphalian sovereignty norms to extralegal sovereignty?

Answer 29

Russia has begun to embody extralegal sovereignty through its government by Putin, who is a strong leader that frequently acts outside of laws. The incursions into Ukraine of 2014/22 and Georgia in 2008 are symbolic of this.

Question 30

How has Russia arguably DEFENDED Westphalian sovereignty norms?

Answer 30

Russia has defended Westphalian sovereignty norms by arguing for non-intervention in Russia by outside parties, as well as by defending its involvement in Syria as Assad requested assistance from Russia.

Question 31

How does Roland Paris qualify his claims that Westphalian sovereignty norms are being reversed?

Answer 31

Paris believes that many states continue to uphold Westphalian norms and standards of sovereignty - it is still necessary for great powers to maintain traditional sovereignty norms for their legitimacy in the international system, as without this the world would be reduced to the use of force between states.

Question 32

How has China channelled ‘Tianxia’ values to challenge traditional Westphalian sovereignty norms?

Answer 32

China has pursued the ‘China Dream’ to assert China as the dominant power in the Asia Pacific, atop a hierarchy as held by Tianxia values. This has been seen through Chinese military activities and territorial claims in the South China Sea, as well as Belt and Road to extend its influence over other states.

Question 33

Explain the Chinese notion of ‘Tianxia’ values and hierarchy. How does this link to sovereignty?

Answer 33

‘Tianxia’ values of hierarchy describe how one power must reach the top of a hierarchy in order to become truly sovereign over one’s own activities.

Question 34

How has the US both challenged and enforced Westphalian sovereignty norms under the Trump presidency?

Answer 34

Trump has challenged Westphalian sovereignty by encouraging shows of strength towards other states and through the coercion of some. For instance, acting extralegally, he encouraged Ukraine to investigate Hunter Biden, withdrew from the Paris Agreement and the Iran Nuclear Deal, threatened NATO and assassinated Soleimani in Iraq.

However, Trump was also keen to promote US sovereignty and non-interference of other states in the US.