the self

Question 1

what is the self in sport?

Answer 1

• Self Esteem, Self-Confidence, Self-Efficacy
• Important- can be limiting factor on ones performance
• Simply: a persons performance will not exceed their level of these constructs.

Question 2

what is self-esteem?

Answer 2

• “personal judgement of worthiness” (Coopersmith, 1967, p. 5) - Internal and personal to an individual.
• Personal judgment of worthiness that reflects the degree to which an individual feels positive about themselves
• How worthful we feel= self-esteem.
• Self-Concept – what we know about ourselves.
• Self-Esteem – what we feel about ourselves
• Common approach to studying self-perceptions is through considering a self-system that is multidimensional and hierarchical in nature
• Multidimensional= lots of different things to it
  ○ Global self esteem at apex
  ○ Made up of different
• Divided into subdomains.
• E.g. Fox & Corbin (1989) proposed physical self worth can be divided in various subdomains such as competence, conditioning, physical strength

Question 3

what is an individuals overall self-concept?

Answer 3

• A multidimensional hierarchical model of the self; specificity increases from the apex to the base
  ○ (Shavelson, Hubner, and Stanton, 1976
• Higher order constructs are dependent on lower order constructs
• Further down we move, the more specific it gets.
• Higher order constructs are dependent on lower order constructs.
• Self-concept of simpler & fewer components – less opportunity to self affirm
• Overall self-concept Is developed and Can turn to other areas if one area isn’t going well.
• If one part comes under attack, the whole self isn’t under attack.

Question 4

how to athlete’s with poor self-esteem attribute?

Answer 4

• Rely on how they are doing in the present to determine how they feel about themselves
  ○ Right now/ present= self-worth is unstable.
  ○ Self-worth is unstable so performance is unstable
• Success doesn’t heighten SE – sustains them
• Attribute negative events internally and are less resilient and less consistent
  ○ Failure= internal
  ○ Success= external
• Failure has a more significant impact on future performances- Less consistent

Question 5

how do athletes with high self-esteem attribute?

Answer 5

• Future performances less affect by failure
  ○ Better able to cope with failure.
  ○ Maintain positive self-worth regardless of performance
  ○ Perform more consistently at higher level
• They accept & value themselves as worthy and worthwhile without conditions or reservations
  ○ They can cope with failure
  Success= internal
  Failure= external

Question 6

what is the self-serving bias?

Answer 6

How an athlete attributes may be in such way to protect their self-esteem.

Question 7

what are the effects of positve and negative self-esteem on individuals?

Answer 7

• High self-esteem
  ○ Independence, leadership, adaptability, resilience to stress (Wylie, 1989)
  ○ Accept leadership roles: within a group
  ○ Can cope with burn out and are more resilient in the face of failure.
• Low self-esteem
  ○ Anxiety, depression, phobias (Baumeister, 1993)
• Less defined sense of self - less self knowledge - more susceptible to external cues and events that threaten self-esteem

Question 8

why is it important to maintain a broad self-concept?

Answer 8

give more opportunity for the individual to self-affirm.

Question 9

what does research tell us about the influence of physical activity on self-esteem?

Answer 9

should have greater impact on physical self domains compared to other domains (e.g. academic) or the higher-order domains like global self-esteem (Fox, 2000).

Question 10

what have meta anlayses found in relation to physical activity and self-esteem levels.

Answer 10

(Spence et al., 2005) 113 research studies examining effects of exercise
* Conclusion – exercise results in small but significant improvements in global self- esteem
* Also suggests that increases in physical fitness are required to produce this improvement
* Psychological interventions consistently improve perceptions of the physical self (Crocker et al., 2013)
* Significant improvements have been reported following participation in activities that include running, walking, cycling, weight-training, step dance, golf (Leith, 2010)
* Appears that many types and does of exercise have a positive benefit on physical self perceptions
○ Physical activity consistently makes people feel better about themselves physically

Question 11

what is vealey’s definition of self-confidence:

Answer 11

• “A belief about our ability to be successful”
  Sport Confidence: “the belief or degree of certainty individuals possess about their ability to be successful in sport” (Vealey, 1986)

Question 12

what is sports confidence?

Answer 12

Factor most consistently distinguishing highly successful from less successful athletes (Jones & Hardy, 1990)

Question 13

what did gould et al (1999) find about high performing athletes and their levels of self-confidence?

Answer 13

• Among chief factors influencing performance 1998 Winter Olympics
  ○ 63 highest achievers – 90% reported high SC level
  ○ Confidence has a huge impact on our performance.
• Top athletes (regardless of sport) consistently display strong belief in themselves & their ability

Question 14

what is trait self-confidence?

Answer 14

• How confident you are in your abilities in general
• Consistent/stable

Question 15

what is state confidence?

Answer 15

• How confident you feel right now
• Temporary/unstable

Question 16

according to Vealey and Knight (2002), how is self-confidence multidimensional?

Answer 16

• Confidence about one’s ability to…
• Execute physical skills
• Use psychological skills: am I confident that I can use the skills to my disposal to help me with my performance?
• Use perceptual skills (e.g. decision-making): is it better to make a decision quickly or is it better to have some time?
• Learn and improve skills (regarding potential and ability): can I learn it, can I tweak it, can I use what i’ve learnt in one skill for another skill?
• Confidence in one’s level of physical fitness & training status: have to be confident to continue to put in a good performance over a period of time.

Question 17

according to Hays et al (2007) what is the importance of self-confidence in athletes?

Answer 17

• found additional types in elite athletes
  ○ Belief in ability to achieve (winning & improved performance)
  ○ Belief in one’s superiority over opposition
  
  • Have to back yourself when being a top achieving athlete.

Question 18

what is narcissism?

Answer 18

tendency to believe you are the absolute best, no body is more superior to you.
○ To get to being successful, they do need to display a little bit of narcissism- belief that they will win.

Question 19

what are the benefits of having high self-confidence?

Answer 19

• Characterised by high expectancy of success
• Can influence Affect, Behaviour, & Cognition (ABCs of sport psychology)
  1. Arouses positive affect (emotions)
  2. Facilitates concentration (allows athlete to be able to know exactly what to focus on and when)
  3. Affects goals (set themselves challenging goals)
  4. Increases effort (put more effort in)
  5. Affects games strategies (take more risks)
  6. Affects psychological momentum (understand momentum is like a penduluum- swings bot ways. Willing to put effort in to get it back)
  7. Affects performance

Question 20

what is optimal self-confidence?

Answer 20

• Optimal self-confidence – being so convinced that you can achieve your goals you will strive hard to do so (different for everyone)
• Confidence will not overcome incompetence
• Each person has an optimal level of self-confidence
• Performance problems arise with too little / too much confidence

Question 21

how does a lack of confidence undermine performance?

Answer 21

• Less effective thinkers
• More negative attitude (defeatist attitude)
• Tendency to give up more easily (less resilient)
• Avoid more challenging situations and opportunities (self-determination theory link)
• More focused on the outcome and consequences
• Creates feelings of:
  Anxiety, Distraction, Indecisiveness

Question 22

how do confident athletes maximise performance?

Answer 22

• More effective thinkers (work smarter not harder)
• Positive attitude (things will go their way)
• Persistence in the face of failure (resilient)
• Welcome opportunities and challenges (will accept challenges that aren’t too easy or too difficult- optimal)
• Focus on mastery of the task (not about the outcome as much)
• Creates feeligs of:
  Relaxed, Focused, In control of performances

Question 23

what is overconfidence?

Answer 23

When confidence outweighs abilities (in anecdotal reports)

Question 24

what are the two types of overconfidence?

Answer 24

1. false confidence
2. inflated confidence

Question 25

what is inflated confidence?

Answer 25

• Believe they are better than they really are
• Have inflated opinion of themselves and skills
• Overestimate their ability
• Underestimate opponents skills
• Often competent
• Don’t adequately prepare
• Highly confident

Question 26

what is false confidence?

Answer 26

• Confident outside- Inside – fear failure & are diffident
• Pretend to be brash, cocky & arrogant
• Prepare hard but lack competence to be successful
• Don’t have the ability to be successful
• Bandura- Don’t really know If overconfidence is real.
• Explanation for being beaten by an inferior opponent.
• Need more evidence to see if overconfidence is a real phenomenon.

Question 27

how do you deal with overconfidence?

Answer 27

• Detrimental for athletes to think all they have to do is show up for a game/competition
  ○ Take games / competition seriously
  ○ Respect opponents & don’t underestimate their ability.
  ○ Hard work, effort, skill, determination and confidence are needed for every game/competition
• Putting in the work to be successful.

Question 28

how do success and confidence link?

Answer 28

• Generally true that nothing succeeds like success
• If we are successful at something, our confidence in our ability to do that gain goes up
• However…
• Athletes may lose confidence as past success becomes a form of pressure, Feeds into anxiety, Having a feeling of expectation to win
• Athletes may start to focus on weakness and remembering failures, Rather than focusing on positives.
• Athletes whose achievements do not match levels of self-confidence may feel demoralised.
• If they have high confidence but things go against them it can be heart breaking.

Question 29

how do expectations and performance link?

Answer 29

• Self-fulfilling prophecy: prediction that sets in motion a series of events that ultimately causes the original prediction to become true.
• If you expect to lose it will probably happen
  what you expect is what you get

Question 30

where do expectations come from about ones’ performance?

Answer 30

Expectations from self
Expectations of winning or losing
Expectations from coaches, parents, teams-mates, fans

Question 31

what is a negative self-fulfilling prophacy?

Answer 31

Expect failure, which leads to actual failure, which lowers self-image and expectations of future failure. . . A vicious cycle.

Question 32

what is a positive self-fulfilling prophacy?

Answer 32

Expecting the desired outcome and performance. Even if winning isn’t the desired outcome- e.g.: mastery.

Question 33

what are the 5 misconceptions about the self-confidence?

Answer 33

1. Either you have it or you don’t.
   ○ Confidence is reinformed throughout life.
   ○ Can be learned- is a skill.
2. Only positive feedback can build confidence
   ○ Constructive feedback.
   ○ What you put in the middle of positive feedback is things that need to be worked on- balanced.
3. Success always builds confidence
4. Confidence equal outspoken arrogance
   ○ Personalities vary of confident people
   ○ Some are shy and reserved.
5. Mistakes inevitably destroy confidence
   ○ Mistakes can be fixed.

Question 34

how do we build self-confidence?

Answer 34

• Performance accomplishments
• Retrospections
• Acting confident
  ○ Body language
• Thinking confidently
• Using imagery
  ○ Imagining them being successful
• Goal-setting
  ○ Structure to the larger goal, breaking it down to smaller goals.
• Preparation
  ○ “Fail to prepare, prepare to fail”
• Not a trait that you are born with
  ○ Fluctuates during an individuals lifetime
  ○ Can be built through body language, teaching, successful performances etc.

Question 35

what is the difference between self-confidence and self-efficacy?

Answer 35

• Self-Confidence – global / general
• Self-Efficacy – situation specific
• State self confidence and self-efficacy are NOT the same thing.
• Someone may be generally self-confident in sport (golf) but when it comes to playing golf (specifically putting) then may have low self-efficacy in that situation

Question 36

according to bandura, what is self-efficacy?

Answer 36

• Behaviour is better predicted by beliefs about ones capabilities than by your actual capabilities (Bandura)
  ○ Unless you believe you can do it, its not going to matter if others are saying you can do it.
• “What people think, believe, and feel affects how they behave”
  ○ (Bandura, 1986, p. 25)
• “People’s level of motivation, affective states, and actions are based more on what they believe than on what is objectively true”
  ○ (Bandura, 1997, p. 2)

Question 37

what does sefl-efficacy determine?

Answer 37

• what people do with the knowledge and skills they have
• Explains why people’s behaviours are sometimes disjointed from their actual capabilities and why people’s behaviour differs widely even when they have similar knowledge & skills

Question 38

what is the self-efficacy theory?

Answer 38

• Assumption: the primary mediator of behaviour/ behaviour change is self-efficacy
  ○ Influencer of behaviour
• Adoption and persistence in behaviour’s are determined by: need all three to be yes.
  1. the expectations about one’s skills and capabilities to engage successfully in the specific target behaviour in particular situations (SE expectancy)
  ○ e.g., adhering to an 8 week exercise programme, walking 5 times a week for 30 minutes
  2. expectations about outcomes, and (outcome expectancy);
  ○ i.e., believing that adherence to such a programme with result in the desired outcomes
  3. the value placed on those outcomes (outcome value)
  ○ If we engage in the behaviour, are we going to get what we want out of it?
• Higher SE, - higher the goals, and the more persistence one shows towards reaching those goals
• A person with high SE and fails, he/ she will attribute the failure to insufficient effort and be more likely to persist
• A person with low SE may attribute failure to low ability, and will be more likely to give up
• if individual has high self-efficacy, they will try to complete their goal
  ○ Will attribute it to lack of effort and try again with more effort.

Question 39

what are the 6 sources of self-efficacy?

Answer 39

1. Performance accomplishments
2. Vicarious experiences
3. Verbal persuasion
4. Imaginal experiences
5. Physiological states
6. Emotional states

Question 40

what are performance accomplishments?

source of self-efficacy

Answer 40

• Based around confidence- success will heighten self-efficacy expectations
• Failure can lower self-efficacy through feelings of doubt.
• Strongest source of self-efficacy because it is based on our actual experiences (positive and/ or negative)
  ○ Based around personal accomplishments.
  ○ Success raises efficacy expectations i.e., success increases beliefs about what we can do
  ○ Failures lower efficacy expectations i.e., failures lower beliefs about what we can do

Question 41

what are vicarious experiences (imagery/ modelling)?

source of self-efficacy

Answer 41

• Social comparison= be carful who we use- similar ability to you.
  ○ If the other person cant do it, may lower self-efficacy.
• Observing others succeed or fail may influence efficacy beliefs; especially for those who have little or no experience
  ○ Social comparison information can influence efficacy beliefs – exercising in public, with groups, in pairs; motivating vs. demotivating
  ○ Social comparison can be beneficial since we sometimes cannot measure success without a point of reference (e.g., technique, times, scores)
• Social comparison in the promotion of exercise to specific groups (e.g., obese, older adult, beginner exerciser):
  ○ Use of individuals in the media – are they appropriate to the target group? How useful are images of elite athletes with an older adult group?????
  ○ May be unrealistic- not generalisable as not similar to many people (target population).
  ○ For social comparison
• Two viewpoints:
  1. Use images of individuals who are similar to the target group
  2. Elite athletes are ‘interesting’ and ‘motivational’- use elite athletes as role models

Question 42

what is verbal persuasion?

source of self-efficacy

Answer 42

• Is thought to influence self-efficacy
• Weaker influence than prior success and performance attainment and imitation and modelling
• Someone else telling us we can do it
• What is our relationship like with that person?
• How trustworthy are they?
• How is the message delivered?
• Characterised by encouragement, reinforcement, feedback
• Its effectiveness is also reliant on how realistic feedback may be
• Do we believe what the person is telling us?

Question 43

what are imaginal experiences?

source of self-efficacy

Answer 43

• Generate beliefs about personal efficacy / lack of efficacy – imaging behaving effectively/ineffectively
• How well you can create images from all our senses about our success in a skill.
• Key using imagery – see oneself demonstrating mastery (Moritz et al., 1996)

Question 44

what are physiological states?

source of self-efficacy

Answer 44

• Condition of the body = heart rate, breathing, sweating, rate of motor activity, muscle tension/ relaxation, body temperature
• In that moment, what is our body telling us?
  8 Self-efficacy related to how one evaluates physiological states (such as heart rate)
• Facilitative – SE is enhanced
• Debilitative – lowered SE
• Are personal and due to our interpretations.

Question 45

what are emotional states?

source of self-efficacy

Answer 45

○ Physiological cues important components of emotion – emotional experiences not simply product of physiological arousal
* Can have emotional responses that influence how our body reacts (mind to body)
○ Emotions / Moods additional source of information about SE
○ Research – positive emotional states (e.g. happiness) more likely enhance efficacy judgements than negative states (e.g. sadness)
(Maddux & Meier, 1995)

Question 46

what is the relationshop between self-efficacy and motivation?

Answer 46

• Unless people believe that their actions can produce the outcomes they desire, they have little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties… (Bandura, 1986)
  ○ Will not try to achieve it
  ○ If things get difficult they don’t have an incentive to persevere.
• Self-efficacy isn’t just a sports concept= comes into everyday life.
• Strength of SE beliefs affect virtually every aspect of our lives…
  ○ whether we think productively, pessimistically or optimistically
  ○ how well we motivate ourselves & persevere
  ○ Life choices; vulnerability to stress & depression