stress and anxiety

Question 1

according to Gould et al, 2002 what is the definition of arousal?

Answer 1

‘a general physiological and psychological activation varying on a continuum from deep sleep to intense excitement’

Question 2

what is arousal determined by?

Answer 2

physiological processes such as emotions which in turn depend on higher cognitive functions like thoughts

Question 3

what is sporting arousal?

Answer 3

• An increase level of mental excitement and alertness
• State of being
  ○ How ready/ not ready they may be for their performance.
  ○ Excited
  ○ Keen mentally and physically ready (optimal level that the individual is ready to go).

Question 4

what is drive theory according to Hull, 1943?

Answer 4

• Proportional linear relationship (positive straight line)
  ○ As one increases, so does the other.
• More psyched up – better the performance
• Increased drive (arousal) will increase the likelihood of dominant response/most usual behaviour
• Performance will be worse for poorer learnt or complex skills

Question 5

what are the weaknesses of drive theory?

Answer 5

• If dominant response is wrong, or it isn’t a well learned skill performance will not be increased.
• Increasing drive (arousal) – performers resort to previously learned skills because they are dominant – but may incorrect (novices, intermediates)
• Even highly skilled players ‘choke’ in highly charged situations e.g. penalty shoot out
  ○ More activation, they choke.
• More for simple skills than complex skills
  Doesn’t consider too much or too little activation:
• If not at the right level of activation, it will influence their performance.

Question 6

what is under arousal and why is it important for drive theory?

Answer 6

• Athletes under perform
• Lack drive and determination
• May not be excited or focused enough to perform

Question 7

what is over arousal and why is it importnat fro drive theory?

Answer 7

• Feel stressed, anxious/nervous
  ○ Psych themselves out
• Could become psyched out by opposition
• Physical symptoms – increased heart rate, sweating, nausea
• Mistakes are made and performance declines

Question 8

what is the inverted U theory according to Yerkes and Dobson (1908)?

Answer 8

• Predicts performance effectiveness will increase as arousal increases
  ○ up to some optimal point- different for everyone.
  ○ further increases in arousal will produce a decrease in performance.
• Theory suggests behaviour is aroused and directed toward balanced or optimal state.
  ○ Under arousal has a negative effect on performance
• As arousal increases performance will improve
  ○ Arousal continue increase, performance decline (performance starts to decrease)
  ○ Athletes experience over-arousal
• Under arousal has a negative effect on performance
• As arousal increases performance will improve
• Optimal level of arousal where perform at best (“In the Zone”)

Question 9

hwo does Landers and Arent’s 2010 study support the notion of inverted U theory?

Answer 9

cyclists had to continue cycling but when the light was swutched off they had to lift theor finger off a button
they then added another codnition in which cyclists had to press another button
Shows as arousal increases to a certain point but then decreases if it goes bast the point.

Question 10

what are the criticisms of the inverted-U theory according

Gould & Urdy (1994); Hardy (1990)

Answer 10

the Optimal arousal may not be at the midpoint
Nature of arousal itself?
Complex vs simple tasks have different levels of arousal?

Question 11

what did hardy and fazey say about the inverted u hypothesis?

Answer 11

“ a catastrophe for sport psychology”

Question 12

what did neiss (1988) say about the inverted u hypothesis?

Answer 12

“If… the inverted-U hypothesis reveals only that the motivated outperform the apathetic and the terrified, it should be consigned to the true-but-trivial category”

Question 13

what is the general defenitiopn of anxiety?

Answer 13

‘a negative emotional state with feelings of nervousness, worry and apprehension associated with activation or
arousal of the body’ (Weinberg & Gould, 2011).

Question 14

what is the definition of anxiety in a sporting context?

Answer 14

“an unpleasant psychological state in reaction to perceived stress concerning the performance of a task under pressure” (Cheng et al., 2009, p.271)

Question 15

what is trait anxiety?

weinberg and gould (2011)

Answer 15

aspect of personality – an individual with trait anxiety will experience anxiety regardless of the situation (how you usually feel) = How you perceive a situations

Question 16

what is state anxiety?

weinberg and gould (2011)

Answer 16

How you feel right now

Question 17

what is the trait and state anxiety relationship?

Answer 17

Individuals with high trait anxiety usually have high levels of state anxiety in highly competitive, evaluative situations.
○ High trait anxious individuals can learn coping skills to reduce state anxiety.
○ Knowing a person’s level of trait anxiety
Useful in predicting how they will react to competition, evaluation and threatening situations

Question 18

what is the importance of knowing someonmes trait axiety?

Answer 18

• Trait anxiety can give us some indication of how individuals will cope in competition and evaluative situations
  ○ Don’t want to wait until those situations to find it out.
  Can teach coping mechanisms in the state situation.

Question 19

what are the two components of state anxiety?

Answer 19

somatic anxiety (preconceptions of physiological changes)
cognitive anxiety (worry/ concentration disruption)

Question 20

what is cognitive anxiety?

Answer 20

• Concerned with extent to which one worries or has negative thoughts
  ○ Lack a sense of self confidence
  ○ Disrupted attentions
  ○ Sense of worry, fear, doubt, etc.
  ○ Worrisome expectation of failure
  ○ Negative concerns about performance
  ○ Impaired ability to concentrate
  These are PSYCHOLOGICAL responses

Question 21

what is somatic anxiety?

Answer 21

• Concerned with the moment-to-moment changes in one’s perception (dont all respond in the same way) of physiological activation
  ○ Unusual feelings of nausea
  ○ Increased respiration rates
  ○ Increased blood pressure
  ○ Increased muscle tension
  ○ Increased perspiration
  These are PHYSIOLOGICAL responses

Question 22

how does pressure cause anxiety?

Answer 22

greater fear of failure in high-pressure / important situation
○ How much importance we put on the situation
If we lower the situation importance we will have less anxiety

Question 23

how does uncertainty cause anxiety?

Answer 23

not knowing whether you will succeed or not
○ Not knowing what the outcome will be
Can be in everyday life

Question 24

how does and individuals effect on self-esteem cause anxiety?

Answer 24

concern about what others might think if you perform poorly
○ How worthful do we feel
Thinking about how others view us if we perform poorly.

Question 25

how does fear of harm cause anxiety?

Answer 25

fear of injury or pain in dangerous activities
○ Injury is a real thing in sport
○ Apprehension on returning from injury
Long-term injuries- will I return at the same level or not.

Question 26

how does frustration cause anxiety?

Answer 26

worrying that you may not achieve targets
○ Achieving your targets.
How do you get out of your head if things go wrong.

Question 27

what did Woodman and Hardy (2003) suggest about anxiety and performance in sport?

Answer 27

• Meta-analysis of 48 studies investigating Cognitive Anxiety & Self- confidence subscales
  Effect Size
  Small: 0.2
  Medium: 0.5
  Large 0.8
  quantitative measure of the magnitude of the experimental effect. The larger the effect size the stronger the relationship between two variables.
• Mean effect sizes greater for high-standard athletes
  ○ High standard= increased pressure (picture changes slightly looking at the differences in standards of play)
  ○ Can cope….Dramatic effect on performance
  § Would expect elite athletes to be able to cope- how is this possible?
  • Fewer ‘random effects’
  • Like to control the controllable.
    Free up space for anything out of your control.

Question 28

what is the relationship between anxiety and performance in sport?

Answer 28

• Anxiety often impairs performance on ‘difficult’ tasks (Eysenck & Calvo, 1992)
  ○ Anxiety is complex
  ○ Pre-event assessment
  § Anxiety in anticipation for an event.
  ○ Blunt performance measures
  ○ In-event coping
  § Cant collect psychological data during an event.
  § When we do measure it, asking them to retrospectively think about it.
  ○ Task characteristics
  § Simple vs complex
  ○ Self-report measures
  § Self-report bias (not getting meaningful data)
  Social desirability bias.

Question 29

what did jones at all say about the relationship between anxiety and performance in sport?

Answer 29

“It is probably not very realistic for pre-performance measures of anxiety to predict actual performance to any great extent”

Question 30

what is the defenition of stress according to McGrath (1970)?

Answer 30

‘a substantial imbalance between demand [physical and/or psychological] and response capability, under conditions where failure to meet that demand has important consequences’

Question 31

what happens when you experience stress?

Answer 31

• “fight or flight response” Prefrontal cortex is the first part that comes under attack- Deals with executive functioning: decision making
  ○ Increases HR
  ○ Inhibits peristalsis
  ○ Shivering / goose bumps
  ○ Pupils dilate
  ○ Increase perspiration
  ○ Glycogen to glucose
  ○ (Nor)adrenaline
  
  • Body is getting into state to either defend itself or run away.

Question 32

what is the stress process? (McGrath, 1970)

Answer 32

stage 1: environmental demand (some form of demand is placed on an individual- psychological or physiological)

stage 2: individual’s perception of the environmental demand (how much they perciev the situation to be a threat- trait anxious people more likely to see it as a threat).

stage 3: stress response (physical and psychological response to the situation- arousal, state anxiety, muscle tension, attention chnages)

stage 4: behavioural consequences (performance or outcome depending on our perception o the event- as a result, what happened?)

Question 33

what are the sources of stress & anxiety according to (Noblet & Gifford, 2002; Woodman & Hardy 2001) ?

Answer 33

• Thousands specific sources
  Athletes:
  ○ Performance issues such as worrying about performing up to capabilities, self-doubts about talent, team selection
  § If their performance is going to be good or not
  § Selection and deselection
  ○ environmental issues e.g. financial costs, travel, time needed for training
  § Financial issues= some sports are very expensive
  § Maybe have to have a job as well
  § travel
  ○ organizational issues - coaching leadership, communication
  § Coach-athlete relationships
  ○ Physical danger; negative personal rapport behaviours of coaches; and relationships or traumatic experiences outside of sport
  § Behaviours that are traumatic
  Thinking holistically about an athlete- affect of things inside and outside of sport

Question 34

what did McKay et al (2008) suggest about the sources of stress and anxiety?

Answer 34

Athletes experience a core group of stress/strain sources that include competitive concerns, pressure to perform, lifestyle demands, and negative aspects of personal relationships.

Question 35

what did Gould et al (1997) suugest about the sources of stress and anxiety?

Answer 35

found that injured elite athletes had psychological (e.g., fear, shattered hopes and dreams), physical, medical- or rehab- related, financial, and career stress sources along with missed opportunities outside the sport (e.g., inability to visit another country with the team)

Question 36

how do paretal pressures act as a source of stress and anxiety especially for young children?

Answer 36

• Traditional source
  ○ Reason for taking part
• Climate pressure perceived can alter its effects (O’Rourke et al., 2011)
• High pressure in high ego motivational climate= increased perceptions of anxiety
• High pressure in high mastery motivational climate  decreased perceptions of anxiety
  “did you win” vs “how did it go”

Question 37

what is the individual zone of optimal functioning (Hanin, 1997; 2000)?

Answer 37

• Optimal arousal varies depending on an individuals skill level, personality characteristics and nature of task being performed
  ○ Don’t agree that it is at the midpoint
  ○ Varies for individuals
  ○ Not a single point- a bandwidth
  More of a zone to work with

Question 38

according to Ruiz et al (2017) what are the 2 main features of the IZOF?

Answer 38

1. Optimal level of state anxiety does not always occur at midpoint of continuum but varies from individual to individual – some athletes at lower end of continuum, some midrange, some higher end
2. Optimal level of state anxiety if not a single point but a bandwidth.

Question 39

why do fine skills need a lower level of optimal functioning?

Answer 39

Precision, accuracy and control
Athletes operate better at a lower level of arousal
E.g. Archery, Snooker and darts

Question 40

why do gross skills require higher zones of optimal fucntioning?

Answer 40

Large, powerful, movements -Athletes need be determined, focused and physically and mentally excited
E.g. Rugby tackle, Boxing

Question 41

what is the multidimensional anxiety theory?

Answer 41

• Predicts different relationships between different components of anxiety & performance
  Studies shown these two anxiety components differentially predict performance - precise predictions of multidimensional anxiety theory have not been consistently supported (Mellalieu, et al., 2006)
  
  • Cognitive anxiety measures intensity
    ○ How anxious o you feel based on a questionnaire compared to your performance
    Doesn’t account for perception or evaluation

Question 42

what are the criticisms of the multidimensional anxiety theory?

Answer 42

• “[Multidimensional anxiety theory] only makes predictions about the separate relationships between cognitive anxiety and performance, and somatic anxiety and performance, when what is really required is an explanation of how cognitive and somatic anxiety interact to influence performance” (Hardy & Parfitt, 1991, p.165)

Question 43

what is the catastrophe theory? (Hardy and Parfitt, 1991)

Answer 43

Focuses on the interactive effects of arousal, cognitive anxiety and performance
* 3D model: maybe more difficult to understand.
* Performance= z axis
* Cognitive anxiety= as we move out
* Physiological arousal= go across
* Increasing cognitive anxiety= as arousal increases, performance will increase
○ In a steady pattern.
○ When we get to over arousal, there is a sharp decline in performance.- CATASTROPHE.
§ If we keep increasing arousal, performance will steadily decline.
If we can relax enough and reduce arousal levels to gain control over cognitions- we can increase performance but maybe not to its original level- through teaching athetes coping mechanisms

Question 44

what are the implications of catastrophe theory for athletes?

Answer 44

○ After a catastrophic decline in performance, the athlete must:
1. Completely relax physically
2. Cognitively restructure (take out negative thoughts and focus on positive ones) or eliminate worries and regain confidence and control, and
3. Reactivate him/ herself in a controlled manner to again reach an optimal level of functioning

Question 45

what is hysteresis (Hardy et al, 1994)?

Answer 45

Under conditions of high cognitive anxiety, the pathway that performs takes is different when physiological arousal is increasing to the pathway that performs takes when physiological arousal is decreasing.

Question 46

what is directional anxiety?

Answer 46

• Limitation of measuring just anxiety intensity
• Interpretation of symptoms important?
  ○ Control pressurised situation:
  § Challenge – resources and coping skills to meet demands
  □ Have the resources and can fulfil the demand
  § Threat – don’t have resources and coping skills to meet demands placed on them
  Believe they don’t have the resources to complete the task

Question 47

what did Neil et al (2006) syudy in relation to anxiety scores between elite and non-elite rugby players?

Answer 47

intensity and direction
○ No significant difference in intensity for standard of play
* Is a significant difference with somatic anxiety
○ Elite athletes see it as more of a facilitation (good thing, ready to compete)
○ Non-elite athlete don’t see it as a good thing.
Tells us that elite athletes see stress differently to non-elite athletes.
1. More Facilitative interpretation of somatic responses
2. Less Debilitative interpretation of symptoms of worry

Question 48

how does joesn & Swain (1992) support neil et al’s study?

Answer 48

Elite swimmers reported cognitive and somatic anxiety as more facilitative and less debilitative than have nonelite swimmers
* Research found elite swimmers able consistently maintain facilitative interpretation of anxiety,
* especially through using psychological skills (goal setting, imagery, and self-talk)

Question 49

how does Hanton et al (2009) support neil et al’s study?

Answer 49

Performers trained effectively use their anxiety symptoms in productive way and develop a rational appraisal process in relation to their experiences during competition

Question 50

what are the arousal and state anxiety signs?

Answer 50

• Cold, clammy hands
• Need to urinate frequently
• Profuse sweating
• Negative self-talk
• Dazed look in the eyes
• Increased muscle tension
• Butterflies in stomach
• Increased heart rate
• Have a conversation with the athlete= Create a safe space where they can talk about their feelings.
• Feeling ill
• Headache
• Cotton (dry) mouth
• Being constantly sick
• Difficulty sleeping
• Inability to concentrate
• Consistently performing better in non-competitive situations
• Increased breathing rate