imagery and goal setting Flashcards
reading 8
define imagery:
Imaging refers to creating or re-creating an experience in the mind. A form of simulation, it involves recalling from memory pieces of information that are stored there regarding all types of experiences and shaping them into meaningful images. The image should optimally involve all the senses and not rely totally on the visual.
discuss the effectiveness of imagery in enhancing sport performance:
Using anecdotal, case study, and experimental methods, researchers have found that imagery can improve performance in a variety of sports and in different situations. Of course, the principles of the effective use of imagery need to be incorporated into imagery studies to maximize imagery effectiveness.
Discuss the where, when, why, and what of imagery used by athletes:
Imagery is used at many different times (before and after practice, during the off-season, during breaks in action, during personal time) but most typically before competition. Categories of imagery that athletes use include cognitive general (e.g., using strategy), cognitive specific (e.g., using skills), motivational specific (e.g., receiving a medal), motivational general–arousal (arousal or relaxation), and motivational general–mastery (building confidence). Athletes image internally and externally; image positive and negative events or their surroundings; and use the visual, kinaesthetic, olfactory, tactile, and auditory senses.
Discuss the factors influencing imagery effectiveness.
Consistent with the interactional theme that is prominent throughout this text, the effectiveness of imagery is influenced by both situational and personal factors. These include the nature of the task, the skill level of the performer, and the imaging ability of the person
describe how imagery works:
A number of theories or explanations address how imagery works. These include the psycho-neuro-muscular theory, symbolic learning theory, bio-informational theory, functional equivalence theory, triple code model, and psychological explanations. These explanations are supported by research findings, and they basically propose that physiological and psychological processes account for the effectiveness of imagery.
discuss the uses of imagery:
Imagery has many uses, including enhancing motivation, reducing anxiety, building confidence, enhancing concentration, recovering from injury, solving problems, and practicing specific skills and strategies.
Explain how to develop a program of imagery training:
Motivation and realistic expectations are critical first steps in setting up a program of imagery training. In addition, evaluation using an instrument such as the Sport Imagery Questionnaire should occur before the training program begins. Basic training in imagery includes exercises in vividness and controllability. Athletes should initially practice imagery in a quiet setting and in a relaxed, attentive state. They should focus on developing positive images, although it is also useful occasionally to visualize failures in order to develop coping skills. Both the execution and outcome of the skill should be imaged, and imaging should occur in real time.
Define what goals are and identify major types of goals:
Goals are objectives or aims of actions. They may be subjective or objective and may be directed toward performance (self-comparisons for improvement), process (actions that lead to improved performance), or outcome (beating or surpassing others). Learning goals focus on the processes, strategies, and procedures needed in order to learn and master a task, while performance goals focus on achieving specific tasks that allow one to meet precise standards of proficiency on already learned tasks. All these types of goals can be useful. The key is knowing when to focus on each goal type and not devoting all one’s attention to outcome goals.
Describe the latest research conducted on and theories of goal setting:
The research on goal setting demonstrates that goals are a powerful means for effecting behaviour changes, either directly or indirectly. Goals influence behaviour directly by bringing a performer’s attention to important elements of the skill or task. Goals also can increase motivation and persistence and can facilitate the development of new learning strategies. Goals influence behaviour indirectly by causing changes in important psychological factors such as self-confidence, anxiety, and satisfaction.
describe goal-setting principles:
The following principles apply to setting goals. They should be specific, moderately difficult but realistic, both short and long term, both practice and competition oriented, both performance and process oriented, and mastery approach versus performance avoidance. Other principles of effective goal setting are recording the goals; developing concomitant and goal achievement strategies; considering a participant’s personality, motivation, and learning status; fostering commitment to goals; providing support to the goal setter; and providing evaluation and feedback of performance toward goals.
Explain group goals and how to use them:
Group goals focus on attaining specific standards of group proficiency, usually within a specified time. Setting group goals is important because having goals has been linked to increases in a group’s motivation and cohesion. When establishing group goals you should (a) establish long-term goals first; (b) establish clear, short-term goals as paths to long-term goals; (c) involve all members of the group in establishing its goals as a team; (d) monitor progress toward team goals; (e) reward progress toward team goals; and (f) foster collective team confidence or efficacy.
Explain how to design a goal-setting system.
A significant number of goal-setting principles form the foundation of a three-stage system (preparation and planning, education and acquisition, and implementation and follow-up). The preparation and planning stage entails assessing individual abilities and needs, setting goals in diverse areas, identifying influences on goal-setting systems, and planning goal achievement strategies. The education and acquisition stage involves scheduling meetings and limiting the number of goals one initially focuses on. Finally, the implementation and follow-up stage involves the use of appropriate goal evaluation procedures, goal support and encouragement, and goal re-evaluation.
Identify common problems in goal setting and how to overcome them:
Common goal-setting problems are failing to convince students, athletes, and exercisers to set goals; failing to set specific goals; setting too many goals too soon; failing to adjust goals flexibly as the situation requires; failing to set performance and process goals; not initiating goal-setting follow-up and evaluation; and failing to recognize problems that can be associated with goal setting. These problems can be overcome by anticipating athletes’ and exercisers’ reasons for not setting goals and providing information to counteract their concerns, monitoring the goals set and providing feedback relative to their specificity, limiting the number of goals set, monitoring and taking action to adjust goals that are too difficult or not difficult enough, recognizing how individual characteristics like goal commitment influence the goal-setting process, continually emphasizing performance and process goals, being sure to follow up and evaluate set goals, and being aware of the problems that are associated with goal setting.
Summarize the findings regarding coaches’ goal-setting practices:
Interviews with coaches about their goal-setting practices showed that (a) goals were set predominantly to focus attention and provide direction; (b) the most important aspect of goal commitment was personal enjoyment; (c) coaches varied in whether they wrote down their goals and in their understanding of goal-setting principles; (d) goal barriers were seen as physical, psychological, and external; (e) coaches used performance, process, and outcome goals, although they favored process and performance goals; and (f) coaches used both short- and long-term goals but focused more on short-term goals.
