The rise of Mussolini Flashcards
Describe the mutilated victory
D’Annunzio coined the aftermath of the War as a ‘mutilated victory’, representing the ineptitude of the liberal government, Italy’s lack of a great power status and the death of 650,000 Italians for nothing
what territorial losses added to this idea of a mutilated victory?
At a Paris peace conference in versailles 1919, Wilson, DLG, and Clemencau didn’t see Italy as deserving of South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria, Dalmatia and Fiume.
Italy was only conceded Trent & Trieste and Northern Dalmatia
How much debt was Italy in by 1919? Why?
85 billion lire- due to huge borrowing of money from the USA and Britain
How did the aftermath of the war constitute economic problems?
Prices quadrupled and inflation destroyed savings. The purchasing power of wages of factory workers fell by about 25%
There was no longer a need for large quantities of rifles, trucks and artillery and industrial profits therefore also declined
What was unemployment by 1919?
2 million; largely made up of returning soldiers
What evidence of industrial disputes are there after the war?
During 1919, over a million workers took part in strikes
What did wheat production fall by after WW1?
It fell from 52 million quintals prior to WW1 to 38 million quintals after the war
What evidence is there that the war led to an upsurge in socialism?
The membership of Socialist Trade unions shot up to 2 million in 1920
What was Trincerocrazia?
The rule of the trenches, where men were linked by the idea of fighting for Italy and each other.
Mussolini argued the Trinceristi (the returned soldiers), had the strength and moral right to destroy the Liberal state and lead a new Italy that would reproduce the patriotic feeling of togetherness they had experienced during the war
What was Mussolini’s Fasci di Combattimento?
A political group founded by Mussolini on the 23 March 1919 where M called together representatives of around 20 ex-servicemen’s leagues in Milan to form the group.
it was predominantly made of arditi and the event to launch it was not well attended, with only 118 assorted radicals present.
What did Mussolini’s Fasci di Combattimento develop into?
It was re-organised into the PNF in October 1921. It provided more co-ordination to the movement and Gave Mussolini greater control
From this point onwards he was able to take part in political negotiations legitimately
What did membership of the PNF grow by? Which group did this appeal to in particular?
Membership grew quickly, from 200,000 members in 1921 to 300,000 by 1922; The PNF became the party of the respectable middle-classes of Italy
What instance of Fascist violence occurred in 1919? What date?
15 April 1919; A Fascist squad of around 200-300 attacked a socialist demonstration in Milan and burned down the Milan offices of Avanti;
Mussolini did not organise the violence but he soon realised what a powerful tool it could be
What did the success of squadristi violence reveal in 1919? What was the effect of M’s policy on membership?
The success of squadristi violence revealed a New path to power, leading M encouraged the formation of squads across Italy under new commanding officers known as the Ras,
Despite the fact that the original meeting of the Fasci di Combattimento in March was only attended by 118, by June there were 3000 members
What was the main appeal of the Fascists?
-anti-socialism
-emphasis on patriotism
-Leadership cult of Mussolini
What did the Fascists do in November 1920?
Fascists attacked socialist councils and supporters in Italy in attempt to weaken the PSI- many weapons were supplied by the local police and army barracks
Key PSI members were targeted and forced to drink castor oil & beaten
What was the effect of Fascist violence in November 1920 on Fascist popularity?
Within the Fascist movement they appeared to be saving Italy from ‘traitors’ and ‘radicals’, who were seeking to destroy the country
How many seats did the PNF win at the 1919 election vs the 1921 election?
0 seats Vs 35 seats (1919-1921)
What encouraged Mussolini to adopt a more right-wing stance?
The failure of the 1919 election and the popular of Fascism among anti-socialists
What myth did Mussolini continue to build upon? How was this in part legitimised by Fascist actions in spring 1921?
Mussolini continued to build the myth that the failure of the left was due to the fascists
By spring 1921, the Squads had taken control of Emilia and Tuscany. It is estimated in the first 5 months of 1921 that 200 people were killed and 1000 were wounded in fascist violence against the socialists
How many socialists were killed by Fascists in the build up to the 1921 elections?
100
What claim was re-asserted by Mussolini in 1921? What was the effect of this?
That he was the sole leader of the movement
Through him he could portray Fascism as a national political party
What was the dual policy followed by Mussolini?
He followed a dual policy; The violence of the squads provided the basis of Fascist party strength and a possible means to overthrow parliament and seize power through force
HOWEVER Mussolini hoped to manoeuvre himself into the position of PM via parliamentary coercion and co-operation
Why did Mussolini follow a dual policy?
Mussolini continued to favour his dual policy in order to gain the trust of the elites and appear moderate and willing to compromise. He proposed policies such as backing the monarchy, reducing taxes and balancing the budget if the Fascists were accepted within a government coalition.
What is evidence of How Mussolini mitigated violence to gain support?
In July 1921 Mussolini called for an end to Fascist violence to keep the middle-classes and industrial support intact
What was the Pact of pacification? When was it?
August 1921
Mussolini signed the pact of pacification with the socialist trade union and the PSI. in Public he said this was to bring peace to Italy YET in reality M was hoping the liberals and catholics within parliament would come to a deal to stop him working with the socialists.
When did M drop the pact of pacification?
Following a PNF conference in November 1921 whereby Fascist delegates overwhelmingly voted to support Mussolini, thus cementing his position as the leader of the newly founded political party- the PNF
What was the New programme? What was the effect of this?
November 1921; the Fascist political programme avoided anti-clericalism, and M even announced his opposition to divorce to appeal to the catholics
M knew he needed to remove or weaken earlier radical demands for economic and social reform to make fascism more appealing for conservatives
What evidence is there that the liberal state didn’t react to PNF violence?
July 1922; new squads launched new attacks on Genoa, Milan, Ancona and Bari, murdering socialist leaders and supporters, burning offices and forcing l/w councils to resign. Between may and October the PNF became the de facto government in many of Italys provinces
THE GOV DID NOTHING TO STOP THIS
What mistake did Giolitti make in 1921?
He allowed the PNF in the government bloc electoral list in order to try and bring them in with the liberal state; this not only gave the PNF a foothold in government but added to an air of PNF legitimacy
How did Mussolini capitalise off of the general strike?
By claiming its failure was a result of fascism
What can M’s actions during the march on Rome be characterised as?
A coup d’theatre; plans were drawn up to seize the major towns and cities of northern and central Italy, with 30,000 fascists converging on Rome
How can the ineptitude of the Liberal government be evidenced by the occupation of Fiume in September 1919?
Scared of D’Annunzio’s popularity, the government failed to act for 15 months
How many seats did the PSI secure in the 1919 election?
156 deputies (32% of the vote) ; largest party in parliament
What was the effect of socialisms popularity? How did the liberal state respond?
The PSI were calling for social revolution and the overthrow of the liberal state. This terrified many m/c Italians who were disgusted at the liberals who appeared to be doing nothing about the socialist threat.
Why did Nitti resign?
16 June 1920- Poor economic situation; Fiume and failing support from the PPI
What were the Biennio Rosso?
What happened in September 1920?
-The Biennio Rosso took place in a context of economic crisis at the end of the war(1919-1920), with high unemployment and political instability. It was characterized by strikes and mass worker demonstrations, as well as self-management experiments through land and factory occupations.
-SEP 1920; For nearly a month over 400,000 Italian metal workers occupied factories, paritcularly in the industrial centres of the North eg Turin, Milan & Genoa
How does Giolitti’s response to the Bienno Rosso elucidate liberal ineptitude?
G’s tactics of non-violence, encouraging business to give shares in their companies to workers and pressuring Italys banks to not provide money to companies who wouldn’t negotiate with the striking work force led to problems.
The gov lost the support of the m/c, nationalists, industrialists, land owners and catholics as G had ‘given in’ to the unions demands
Why did Gs gov collapse in June 1921?
lost PPI support; demonstrated failure of trasformismo
and lack of response to violence
Who followed G’s gov?
Bonomi and Facta, but both were demonstrative of weak politicians
What evidence is there of Liberal politicians being more concerned with expediency that opposing Fascism in 1922?
-Orlando and Nitti said they would work with M and called for a coalition that included Fascism, but only if the PNF supported them as prime minister
-Giolitti refused to travel to Rome to help Facta’s government unless he was offered the prime ministership by the King
-M encouraged this fragmentation, seperartely promising Nitti, Salandra, Facta and Giolitti PM in a PNF coalition gov
How were the liberal state weak during the march on Rome?
Although the King was initially encouraged by Facta to enforce martial law and use the army to crush the fascist insurrection, He was swayed by Salandra to abstain from signing the decree, who believed Facta’s resignation may grant himself PM.
How was the King weak during the march on Rome?
The King potentially feared that the military might not obey his orders and would side with the Fascists
Crucially the Kings cousin, the Duke of Aosta, was a fascist supporter and M very cleverly hinted that if the Fascists took over Victor Emmanuel would be replaced by his cousin
What can be said about the liberals role in the kings change of mind?
It demonstrates his lack of faith in the liberal government
How did the war influence attitudes towards socialism?
The experiences of the war created a strong culture of violence towards socialists and workers on strike, with many returning soldiers seeing them as no different from the enemy in WW1
What were the results of the 1921 may election?
Fascists won 35 seats
Socialists won 123 seats
PPI won 107 seats
Thus no one party could fully control parliament
How did the liberal gov do in the 1919 elections?
They only won 96 seats, with the PPI winning 100 seats and the PSI winning 156
How did local elections in 1920 highlight the continuing power of the socialists?
They controlled 26 of Italys 69 provinces
What was the response to the considerable socialist power evident in 1920? Who did people turn to?
The Right began to fight back. Desperate measures including the use of violence, appeared justified given the threat of socialist revolution.
In Emilia and Tuscany in particular, more and more people turned to the local fascists squads who shared their hatred of socialism for help eg supporting local fascist leaders like Balbo in Ferrara
What was the General strike?
July 1922- The PSI and PCI attempted to encourage further pressure on the political system by backing the call for a 24 hour General strike across Italy.
YET most workers didn’t support this move and the strike faded away, and in areas where workers did go on strike, Fascist volunteers sustained public services
How did the Biennio Rosso add to a climate of hostility towards socialism?
The 400,000 metal workers who occupied factories, particularly in the north were condemned by the m/c, who also feared the high membership of 2 million by 1920 in socialist TU’s
Where did M encourage Fascists to attack in 1922 that weren’t controlled by socialists?
In 1922, he encouraged fascists to attack Bolzano and Trent; this was crucial as these towns were held by conservative liberals, not socialist councils
