The rise of Mussolini

Question 1

Describe the mutilated victory

Answer 1

D’Annunzio coined the aftermath of the War as a ‘mutilated victory’, representing the ineptitude of the liberal government, Italy’s lack of a great power status and the death of 650,000 Italians for nothing

Question 2

what territorial losses added to this idea of a mutilated victory?

Answer 2

At a Paris peace conference in versailles 1919, Wilson, DLG, and Clemencau didn’t see Italy as deserving of South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria, Dalmatia and Fiume.

Italy was only conceded Trent & Trieste and Northern Dalmatia

Question 3

How much debt was Italy in by 1919? Why?

Answer 3

85 billion lire- due to huge borrowing of money from the USA and Britain

Question 4

How did the aftermath of the war constitute economic problems?

Answer 4

Prices quadrupled and inflation destroyed savings. The purchasing power of wages of factory workers fell by about 25%

There was no longer a need for large quantities of rifles, trucks and artillery and industrial profits therefore also declined

Question 5

What was unemployment by 1919?

Answer 5

2 million; largely made up of returning soldiers

Question 6

What evidence of industrial disputes are there after the war?

Answer 6

During 1919, over a million workers took part in strikes

Question 7

What did wheat production fall by after WW1?

Answer 7

It fell from 52 million quintals prior to WW1 to 38 million quintals after the war

Question 8

What evidence is there that the war led to an upsurge in socialism?

Answer 8

The membership of Socialist Trade unions shot up to 2 million in 1920

Question 9

What was Trincerocrazia?

Answer 9

The rule of the trenches, where men were linked by the idea of fighting for Italy and each other.

Mussolini argued the Trinceristi (the returned soldiers), had the strength and moral right to destroy the Liberal state and lead a new Italy that would reproduce the patriotic feeling of togetherness they had experienced during the war

Question 10

What was Mussolini’s Fasci di Combattimento?

Answer 10

A political group founded by Mussolini on the 23 March 1919 where M called together representatives of around 20 ex-servicemen’s leagues in Milan to form the group.

it was predominantly made of arditi and the event to launch it was not well attended, with only 118 assorted radicals present.

Question 11

What did Mussolini’s Fasci di Combattimento develop into?

Answer 11

It was re-organised into the PNF in October 1921. It provided more co-ordination to the movement and Gave Mussolini greater control

From this point onwards he was able to take part in political negotiations legitimately

Question 12

What did membership of the PNF grow by? Which group did this appeal to in particular?

Answer 12

Membership grew quickly, from 200,000 members in 1921 to 300,000 by 1922; The PNF became the party of the respectable middle-classes of Italy

Question 13

What instance of Fascist violence occurred in 1919? What date?

Answer 13

15 April 1919; A Fascist squad of around 200-300 attacked a socialist demonstration in Milan and burned down the Milan offices of Avanti;

Mussolini did not organise the violence but he soon realised what a powerful tool it could be

Question 14

What did the success of squadristi violence reveal in 1919? What was the effect of M’s policy on membership?

Answer 14

The success of squadristi violence revealed a New path to power, leading M encouraged the formation of squads across Italy under new commanding officers known as the Ras,

Despite the fact that the original meeting of the Fasci di Combattimento in March was only attended by 118, by June there were 3000 members

Question 15

What was the main appeal of the Fascists?

Answer 15

-anti-socialism
-emphasis on patriotism
-Leadership cult of Mussolini

Question 16

What did the Fascists do in November 1920?

Answer 16

Fascists attacked socialist councils and supporters in Italy in attempt to weaken the PSI- many weapons were supplied by the local police and army barracks

Key PSI members were targeted and forced to drink castor oil & beaten

Question 17

What was the effect of Fascist violence in November 1920 on Fascist popularity?

Answer 17

Within the Fascist movement they appeared to be saving Italy from ‘traitors’ and ‘radicals’, who were seeking to destroy the country

Question 18

How many seats did the PNF win at the 1919 election vs the 1921 election?

Answer 18

0 seats Vs 35 seats (1919-1921)

Question 19

What encouraged Mussolini to adopt a more right-wing stance?

Answer 19

The failure of the 1919 election and the popular of Fascism among anti-socialists

Question 20

What myth did Mussolini continue to build upon? How was this in part legitimised by Fascist actions in spring 1921?

Answer 20

Mussolini continued to build the myth that the failure of the left was due to the fascists

By spring 1921, the Squads had taken control of Emilia and Tuscany. It is estimated in the first 5 months of 1921 that 200 people were killed and 1000 were wounded in fascist violence against the socialists

Question 21

How many socialists were killed by Fascists in the build up to the 1921 elections?

Answer 21

100

Question 22

What claim was re-asserted by Mussolini in 1921? What was the effect of this?

Answer 22

That he was the sole leader of the movement

Through him he could portray Fascism as a national political party

Question 23

What was the dual policy followed by Mussolini?

Answer 23

He followed a dual policy; The violence of the squads provided the basis of Fascist party strength and a possible means to overthrow parliament and seize power through force

HOWEVER Mussolini hoped to manoeuvre himself into the position of PM via parliamentary coercion and co-operation

Question 24

Why did Mussolini follow a dual policy?

Answer 24

Mussolini continued to favour his dual policy in order to gain the trust of the elites and appear moderate and willing to compromise. He proposed policies such as backing the monarchy, reducing taxes and balancing the budget if the Fascists were accepted within a government coalition.

Question 25

What is evidence of How Mussolini mitigated violence to gain support?

Answer 25

In July 1921 Mussolini called for an end to Fascist violence to keep the middle-classes and industrial support intact

Question 26

What was the Pact of pacification? When was it?

Answer 26

August 1921

Mussolini signed the pact of pacification with the socialist trade union and the PSI. in Public he said this was to bring peace to Italy YET in reality M was hoping the liberals and catholics within parliament would come to a deal to stop him working with the socialists.

Question 27

When did M drop the pact of pacification?

Answer 27

Following a PNF conference in November 1921 whereby Fascist delegates overwhelmingly voted to support Mussolini, thus cementing his position as the leader of the newly founded political party- the PNF

Question 28

What was the New programme? What was the effect of this?

Answer 28

November 1921; the Fascist political programme avoided anti-clericalism, and M even announced his opposition to divorce to appeal to the catholics

M knew he needed to remove or weaken earlier radical demands for economic and social reform to make fascism more appealing for conservatives

Question 29

What evidence is there that the liberal state didn’t react to PNF violence?

Answer 29

July 1922; new squads launched new attacks on Genoa, Milan, Ancona and Bari, murdering socialist leaders and supporters, burning offices and forcing l/w councils to resign. Between may and October the PNF became the de facto government in many of Italys provinces

THE GOV DID NOTHING TO STOP THIS

Question 30

What mistake did Giolitti make in 1921?

Answer 30

He allowed the PNF in the government bloc electoral list in order to try and bring them in with the liberal state; this not only gave the PNF a foothold in government but added to an air of PNF legitimacy

Question 31

How did Mussolini capitalise off of the general strike?

Answer 31

By claiming its failure was a result of fascism

Question 32

What can M’s actions during the march on Rome be characterised as?

Answer 32

A coup d’theatre; plans were drawn up to seize the major towns and cities of northern and central Italy, with 30,000 fascists converging on Rome

Question 33

How can the ineptitude of the Liberal government be evidenced by the occupation of Fiume in September 1919?

Answer 33

Scared of D’Annunzio’s popularity, the government failed to act for 15 months

Question 34

How many seats did the PSI secure in the 1919 election?

Answer 34

156 deputies (32% of the vote) ; largest party in parliament

Question 35

What was the effect of socialisms popularity? How did the liberal state respond?

Answer 35

The PSI were calling for social revolution and the overthrow of the liberal state. This terrified many m/c Italians who were disgusted at the liberals who appeared to be doing nothing about the socialist threat.

Question 36

Why did Nitti resign?

Answer 36

16 June 1920- Poor economic situation; Fiume and failing support from the PPI

Question 37

What were the Biennio Rosso?
What happened in September 1920?

Answer 37

-The Biennio Rosso took place in a context of economic crisis at the end of the war(1919-1920), with high unemployment and political instability. It was characterized by strikes and mass worker demonstrations, as well as self-management experiments through land and factory occupations.

-SEP 1920; For nearly a month over 400,000 Italian metal workers occupied factories, paritcularly in the industrial centres of the North eg Turin, Milan & Genoa

Question 38

How does Giolitti’s response to the Bienno Rosso elucidate liberal ineptitude?

Answer 38

G’s tactics of non-violence, encouraging business to give shares in their companies to workers and pressuring Italys banks to not provide money to companies who wouldn’t negotiate with the striking work force led to problems.

The gov lost the support of the m/c, nationalists, industrialists, land owners and catholics as G had ‘given in’ to the unions demands

Question 39

Why did Gs gov collapse in June 1921?

Answer 39

lost PPI support; demonstrated failure of trasformismo
and lack of response to violence

Question 40

Who followed G’s gov?

Answer 40

Bonomi and Facta, but both were demonstrative of weak politicians

Question 41

What evidence is there of Liberal politicians being more concerned with expediency that opposing Fascism in 1922?

Answer 41

-Orlando and Nitti said they would work with M and called for a coalition that included Fascism, but only if the PNF supported them as prime minister

-Giolitti refused to travel to Rome to help Facta’s government unless he was offered the prime ministership by the King

-M encouraged this fragmentation, seperartely promising Nitti, Salandra, Facta and Giolitti PM in a PNF coalition gov

Question 41

How were the liberal state weak during the march on Rome?

Answer 41

Although the King was initially encouraged by Facta to enforce martial law and use the army to crush the fascist insurrection, He was swayed by Salandra to abstain from signing the decree, who believed Facta’s resignation may grant himself PM.

Question 42

How was the King weak during the march on Rome?

Answer 42

The King potentially feared that the military might not obey his orders and would side with the Fascists

Crucially the Kings cousin, the Duke of Aosta, was a fascist supporter and M very cleverly hinted that if the Fascists took over Victor Emmanuel would be replaced by his cousin

Question 43

What can be said about the liberals role in the kings change of mind?

Answer 43

It demonstrates his lack of faith in the liberal government

Question 44

How did the war influence attitudes towards socialism?

Answer 44

The experiences of the war created a strong culture of violence towards socialists and workers on strike, with many returning soldiers seeing them as no different from the enemy in WW1

Question 45

What were the results of the 1921 may election?

Answer 45

Fascists won 35 seats
Socialists won 123 seats
PPI won 107 seats

Thus no one party could fully control parliament

Question 46

How did the liberal gov do in the 1919 elections?

Answer 46

They only won 96 seats, with the PPI winning 100 seats and the PSI winning 156

Question 47

How did local elections in 1920 highlight the continuing power of the socialists?

Answer 47

They controlled 26 of Italys 69 provinces

Question 48

What was the response to the considerable socialist power evident in 1920? Who did people turn to?

Answer 48

The Right began to fight back. Desperate measures including the use of violence, appeared justified given the threat of socialist revolution.

In Emilia and Tuscany in particular, more and more people turned to the local fascists squads who shared their hatred of socialism for help eg supporting local fascist leaders like Balbo in Ferrara

Question 49

What was the General strike?

Answer 49

July 1922- The PSI and PCI attempted to encourage further pressure on the political system by backing the call for a 24 hour General strike across Italy.

YET most workers didn’t support this move and the strike faded away, and in areas where workers did go on strike, Fascist volunteers sustained public services

Question 50

How did the Biennio Rosso add to a climate of hostility towards socialism?

Answer 50

The 400,000 metal workers who occupied factories, particularly in the north were condemned by the m/c, who also feared the high membership of 2 million by 1920 in socialist TU’s

Question 51

Where did M encourage Fascists to attack in 1922 that weren’t controlled by socialists?

Answer 51

In 1922, he encouraged fascists to attack Bolzano and Trent; this was crucial as these towns were held by conservative liberals, not socialist councils