Neutrality crisis and WW1 Flashcards
What group had Italy been apart of? Why did the treaty obligations not apply?
Despite being part of the Triple alliance since 1882, Italys treaty obligations didn’t apply since the Austrian gov hadn’t consulted the Italians before declaring war on Serbia
What was the effect of Italys declaration of neutrality on parliament?
It split the liberals and set off a political crisis
What did PM Salandra argue about intervention?
That Italy should enter the war, fearing that if Germany had won they wouldn’t be sympathetic to an ally who didn’t come to their side at such a critical time.
HOWEVER, in the event of a victory for the Triple Entente, Italy would not see any of her ambitions in the Med realised
What other reason did Salandra encourage intervention?
It would give him the opportunity to introduce repressive legislation that would offer an authoritarian solution to Italy’s problems. In addition with an Italian victory, Salandra wouldn’t be challenged
Who did Salandra begin secret talks with?
Salandra and Sonninno, the foreign minister, began secret discussions with Britain, France, Germany and Austria
What fundamentally shaped the decision of Salandra as to who he should support?
Irredentism- The entente offered the best deal regarding the return of irredentist lands to Italy
When did Italy formally commit to the support of the Entente?
26 April 1915- The Treaty of London; pledged to support Britain, France & Russia
Which political groupings/ individuals opposed intervention?
The PSI, the Catholic Party, the Pope
The prefects, local government councils, reported there was no appetite for war outside of the major cities
What evidence is there that the Treaty of London left parliament divided?
In Early May, Giolitti and 300 deputies announced their opposition to the Treaty of London leaving parliament totally divided
Why did Salandra remain in power despite his resignation?
The King asked Giolitti to form a new ministry, yet said that if Italy did not honour the Treaty of London it would have betrayed both sides, and more importantly stated he would abdicate if the treaty wasn’t honoured, which would catalyse a political crisis in Italy
In this context, G refused the kings offer and Salandra was reinstated as PM on the 16 May
When did Italy officially declare war?
On 25 May 1915, Italy officially declared war on Austria
Which grouping encouraged intervention?
The Nationalists
How much did Fiats workforce increase by during the war?
It increased from 6,000 to 30,000
What was concerning about industrial growth during the war? What was the impact of this?
For the Industrialists there was almost no risk concerned as they were backed by the government.
However, worryingly for the long term, this growth was based almost entirely on government investment in war production, which had been paid for by foreign loans and printing more money
The end of the war would see inevitable inflation
How much debt did Italy find itself in?
23 billion lire, compared with 2.9 billion pre-war
What can be said about the state of the Italian economy during WW1?
It was unbalanced, with few war-based sectors growing at a much faster rate than other industries
How did economic ramifications exacerbate social tensions?
The majority of war production was based in the north-east, and so industrial growth in these areas accentuated the north-south division.
What evidence elucidates the economic disparity between the south and north of Italy?
-The south remained a predominantly impoverished agricultural society
-In the north the economy grew by 20% between 1911 and 1921 ; the south grew increasingly bitter
How was there economic discontent in the North? What did wages fall by?
Workers were angry that they had to work long hours and were experiencing a fall in real wages by about 25%, while industrialist were making vast profits
How did gov policy change to pay for the war? What was the effect of this?
The Gov increased indirect taxes to pay for the war effort and this intern exacerbated social divisions, as the poor were more heavily affected
Who was industrial success driven under? What policies did he enact?
The Secretariat of arms and munitions- Alfredo Dallolio
He organised the recruitment of women and peasants into factories eg 1/4 of all munitions factory employees were women
What evidence is there that at the start of the war Italy was behind Austria in nearly all economic areas?
-Italy produced 1 million tonnes of steel, the Austrians 2.6 million
-For every 2 machine guns per Italian battalion, the Austrians had 12
What evidence is there that at the start of the war Italy was behind Austria in nearly all economic areas?
-Italy produced 1 million tonnes of steel, the Austrians 2.6 million
-For every 2 machine guns per Italian battalion, the Austrians had 12
How many planes did Italy’s aeronautical industry produce?
6500 in 1918
What is the significance of the growth of Fiat over the course of the war? What was the extent of growth?
Italy made significant economic improvements:
-Fiat established itself as Italys leading truck and lorry manufacturer, producing 2500 vehicles in 1918 alone
By the end of the war how much had Italian industry produced?
-20,000 machine guns
-7,000 pieces of heavy artillery
What were conditions like for soldiers?
Horrific- thousands of Italians were killed by cholera and frostbite
How many men were conscripted? What was their stance?
Nearly 5 million men were conscripted, with the majority of them being peasants or agricultural workers. The idea of the war concerning Italian expansion meant very little to them.
Why was the high concentration of peasant conscripts a problem?
The majority of peasant conscripts who spoke a vast range of dialects couldn’t understand the orders being given to them by officials who were predominantly educated northern Italians
Who was the Harsh Italian commander? What was his solution to the issues brought about by peasant conscripts? How many sentences were passed?
Luigi Cardona-
His solution to the lack of discipline and morale was to use harsh punishments
Military tribunals passed 4000 death sentences on Italian soldiers for desertion and indiscipline
What was the attitude of Italian soldiers who had survived camps?
They came out with a strong sense of abandonment and considerable anger towards the government
When was the Battle of Caporetto?
24 October 1917
What happened at Caporetto? (Casualties)
-400,000 soldiers vanished eg lost contact with their regiments/returned home
-10,000 Italians were killed
-30,000 wounded
-300,000 were taken prisoner
Which commander replaced Cardona? What did he do?
General Diaz
He was more focused on holding the Italian line on the Piave river and avoiding the needless sacrifice of soldiers in suicidal offensives
How much did casualties decrease by under Diaz?
Fell from 520,000 in 1917 to 143,000 in 1918
Who took over from Bosselli as PM? What was the effect of this on soldiers?
The young and dynamic Vittorio Orlando became PM; Rations for soldiers and annual leave were increased.
Promises of land reforms were made to peasant conscripts and in December 1917, an organisation was created to look after the welfare of soldiers and their families
How did Orlando re-ignite morale?
There was a greater focus on boosting soldiers morale through lectures and trench newspapers
What policies did Alfred Dallolio implement?
He organised peasants into factories, increased hours of work, made strikes illegal and workers faced military tribunals if their behaviour was deemed unsatisfactory
Where were there riots? What was the effect of this?
Following riots in Turin in August 1917 whereby 50 workers were killed, politicians made steps to increase food supplies and pro-war propaganda
Why did the government hamper attempts to help Italian prisoners? What was the effect of this?
Italian leaders feared that if soldiers heard the prisoner of war camps were tolerable, they may be inclined to surrender.
Thus the government hampered any attempts to help Italian prisoners; eg 600,000 who had been captured were left to survive on 1000 calories a day & 100,000 died of hunger related illness
How many Italians died in 1915?
62,000 during 2 attempted offensives against the Austrians that failed to change the situation at the front
What followed Italys declaration of war?
2 Years of stalemate, where soldiers were needlessly sacrificed in order to move a few hundred metres
What occurred during the humiliating defeat at the Battle of Caporetto?
Poor leadership and low morale saw the Italian army dissolve and a chaotic retreat took place whereby Italian soldiers streamed down the mountains
What was the ramifications of the defeat at Caporetto?
Which politicians actions elucidate this?
The actions of Italian troops in the face of the Austrian offensive was an embarrassment to leadership, who only months before had claimed the war had brought about patriotic unity
One Italian senator Leopaldo Franchetti was so overwhelmed by the nature of caparetto that he killed himself
What was the stance of the PSI during the war? What was the consequence of this?
The PSI opposed the war, declaring a policy of ‘neither support nor sabotage’ ; led to polarisation of politics
This stance was despised by nationalists and many liberals who saw it as defeatist, unpatriotic and a cause of Italys poor military performance
What was the effect of caporetto on the PSI?
In hysteria at Caporetto, many PSI leaders were arrested and imprisoned, accused of ‘stabbing Italy in the back’
Mussolini blamed socialists stating they were a more dangerous enemy than the Austrians, calling for a uniting leader
What did caporetto re-ignite?
Divisions that had surfaced during the intervention crisis of 1914-15. Neutralist politicians were blamed for Italy’s failings, with many of the ANI calling for a revolution to depose of them, with calls for Giolitti to be put on trial
When were tensions reduced?
The battle of Vittorio Veneto (24 October 1918); came to symbolise the greatest moment of the Italian nation, with nationalists claiming Italy had achieved through patriotism and self-sacrifice
What happened at the battle of Vittorio Veneto?
An offensive on Piave was launched, whereby the Austrian army were split in 2 and forced to sign an armistice on the 4 November
