The Nile valley 1882-98 Flashcards
Who took control of Egypt in 1878?
Dual control was taken by France and Britain
Why was British interest in Egypt originally so strange?
Gladstone was pro-small government and anti-imperialist, yet he took control of Egypt anyhow
Why was the acquisition of Egypt important geo-politically?
France wanted to check Austro-Hungarian and Russian interest in the Mediterranean after the inevitable fall of the Ottoman Empire, and Suez Canal
How much foreign debt did the Khedives get themselves in between 1863-70?
Debt went from £3m to £100
When was Egypt bankrupt?
1875/6
Why did the khedives desire autonomy?
They lived far from the Ottoman centre in Constantinople, and had previous enjoyed autonomy due to this
What did the Dual Control force upon the khedive?
Ismail Pasha had to cut pay of army, introduce food taxes and reform the financial system?
When was Ismail Pasha deposed and by who?
In 1879 the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire removed him
Who took over Egypt after the Sultan was persuaded to step back?
Ismail Pasha’s son, Tewfik Pasha
Who formed what in 1879?
Colonel Ahmed Urabi, or Arabi Pasha formed the Egyptian Nationalist Party
Who supported Arabi Pasha?
Those in the army wanting a raise, the bourgeoisie disliking the economic meddling of the dual powers, and the fellahin (peasants)
What caused the coup of 1879?
Government plan’s to dismiss 2,500 army officers and halve the rest’s salaries
What was the result of the coup of 1879?
A nationalist ministry was created including Arabi Pasha
What did Arabi Pasha do immediately when in power which frightening the Dual Controls?
Borrowed £400,000 to reverse the need for army cuts
Why did Britain further itself in Egypt in 1882 to do with strategy?
80% of Suez Canal ships were British, which they had a 45% share in - also to make sure France did not become too powerful in the region
Why did Britain further itself in Egypt in 1882 to do with trade?
Britain took 80% of Egyptian exports and created 44% of it’s import market
Why did Britain further itself in Egypt in 1882 to do with finance?
There were many British bond-holders with Egyptian assets who would lose lots if the country defaulted (even Gladstone had 37% wealth in the area)
Why did Britain further itself in Egypt in 1882 to do with people?
On the 11th June 1882 there were anti-Christian riots, where 20% of population was European and 50 were killed
What did the Dual Controls send Egypt in 1882 in terms of diplomacy and what was the result?
The Gambetta Note led to the Arabi Pasha forcing a nationalist cabinet on the khedive
How did violence begin in Egypt in 1882?
British and French sending battleships to the coast, before British bombardment of Alexandria
Why did France back of out Egypt in terms of international politics?
Bismark and Germany had decided to repudiate the actions in Egypt, and France could not disagree with that
Why did France back of out Egypt in terms of home politics?
A new leader, Charles de Freycinet, took to power in France, and he was less inclined to Egyptian intervention
What is the end result of the Arabi Pasha after 1882?
He is exiled to Ceylon
What is the end result for he who holds power in Egypt after 1882?
Tewfik becomes nominal figurehead, British take real control, Baring comes in
Why was the veiled protectorate held up for so long in terms of military?
After the savaging of Sir William Hicks in 1883 by radical jihadists under the Mahdi’s son, things didn’t look too safe
Why was the veiled protectorate held up for so long in terms of leadership?
Baring had an extensive plan of reform for Egypt which would take time to achieve
Why was the veiled protectorate held up for so long in terms of home politics in Britain?
Gladstone’s defeat at the hands of Hoe Rule in 1886 led to the more imperialist Salisbury
Why was the Khedive powerless after 1882?
All actions had to be approved by the British, who not only had Baring, but made up a large amount of the Civil Service
How long did Sir Evelyn Baring lead Egypt for?
From 1883-1907
How did Sudan fall into such a state of rampant jihadism?
After Gordon left as governor of Khartoum, anti-khedive revolts were not put down, and then the Mahdi emerged in 1881
Why was Sudan important to Salisbury?
While the place was not, the thought of jihadist expansion around the Suez Canal and Alexandria was worrying
What happened to British desire to withdraw in 1887?
The agreement to allow re-enter if necessary was so offensive to France and Russia that they pressured the Sultan not to agree to it
What was the British reaction to the failed Constantinople Conference?
They decided they couldn’t give up Egypt out of fear of Great Powers taking over
What was the financial achievements of the Baring years?
He returned Egypt to solvency by 1887, using loans to stabilize the debt problems - debt repayment made up half of spending
How much money did Baring spend on irrigation?
£1m
What was Baring’s big plan for Egyptian agriculture?
The only was to improve the situation for fellahin was to achieve proper drainage in the farms
What was the problem with the Egyptian tax system and what happened to it under Baring?
The fellahin paid more tax on their kharaj per fedden than they would have had on the ushr land, but no reform was made until the 20th century
What did Baring do with the education system of Egypt?
Secondary education was not the role of the state to provide, and too much of it would destabilize the country anyhow - he increased tuition fees on primary schools to decrease enrollment
When did Tewfik die and who replaced him?
In 1892 Abbas Hilami replaced the former khedive
What increased under Abbas Hilami leadership of Egypt, and who was useful for this?
Arab nationalism, with inspired minds such as Mustafa Kamil encouraging anti-British sentiments in Europe and Egypt
Which underlying current in Egyptian fellahin society passed by Baring?
Born out of a lack of social mobility, particularly due to education reforms, fellahin felt more nationalist
Which changes did Gordon make to the Sudan 1973-80 which destabilized the area?
He cracked down on the slave trade, removing the traditional leaders of the area - this allowed the Mahdi to fill the power vacuum
How did Egyptian rule of Sudan change in 1821?
The situation turned from demanding tribute, to full administrative rule
How did the Mahdi persuade many to support him?
Played on the dislikes of Egyptian taxes and authority
How many were killed by the mahdists in the Hicks expedition?
7,700
When was Gordon sent to Khartoum for a second time and what were his orders?
In 1884 he was ordered to evacuate the city of Europeans and Egyptians, and the Sudanese garrisons
What is thought of Gordon’s end desire for his Sudanese mission and why?
It is thought he wanted evacuation to turn to intervention
What is the evidence Gordon wished for intervention in the Sudan?
He telegraphed many messages to London to get authority to hand the city of the an ex-slave trader, and messages to Baring for more troops, and smuggled copies of his diary out of the area to gain support for his cause
Why did Gordon not evacuate Khartoum earlier?
He waited for people to be saved from the surrounding areas
What happened to Gordon after capture?
His head was taken as a prize for the Mahdi
What occurred after the siege of Khartoum?
2 days later, a relief expedition turned up
Who was blamed for the events at Khartoum, and who did the blaming?
Gladstone was, by the papers, by the queen, and by the electorate in 1885
What was the public reaction to the death of Gordon?
Widespread mourning, a national day of mourning, and books, paintings, busts and statues remembered him across the country - he became an icon
When was the conquest of the Sudan?
1896-98
Why was Sudan invaded in the 1890s in terms of geopolitics?
Control of the source of the Nile was desired by France and Britain - also Britain had claimed the area under it’s sphere of influence in 1890 and needed to show it
Why was Sudan invaded in the 1890s in terms of religion?
The fear of the spread of jihadism into Egypt was enough to require an invasion
Why was the conquest of Sudan started in 1896?
The mahdists forces had just beaten an Italian army in the Battle of Adowa
How did the conquest of Sudan begin?
Slowly, with first the only aim of Dongola, and with strong supply lines
What was French desire for expansion during 1890s?
Connecting western colonies with Djibouti in the east, taking control of the Blue Nile at the same time
Who lead the French march east and where did they meet the British?
Major Marchand at Fashoda, where they were waiting in vain for the western moving French army to come to
What was the result of the Fashoda incident and why did this occur?
The French backed down and removed their claims to the area, due to fear of a stronger British navy and internal crisis with the Dreyfus Affair
How are Gordon and Kitchener linked?
They had met, and Gordon impressed Kitchener greatly with his faith, and also Kitchener was part of the expedition to save Gordon
Which new pieces of technology did Kitchener have with him?
Maxim guns, gunboats, light-gauge railways, and artillery
Why did the Sudanese conquest carry on further than Dongola?
Positive reports from the expedition were received by London, and they wiped out some of the mahdists forces in Ferkeh
What did Kitchener do once he entered Khartoum?
Had a memorial service for Gordon ,and took the Mahdi out of his tomb and beheaded him
How many of the mahdists forces died and were wounded at Omdurman compared to British?
10,000 death compared to 47 British, and 5,000 wounded against 382
Why was there so much death at Omdurman?
Kitchener did not reissue the order from the previous Battle of Atbara to spare the wounded soldiers
Which juxtaposition shows the racism of the events in the Sudan?
While the French were spared in Fashoda, the Sudanese forces were massacred
What international issues caused Kitchener’s drive on the Mahdi?
Italy losing in Ethiopia and French encroachments on Upper Nile region cause need for more control in region
How many men did Kitchener have before Omdurman and how many did the Mahdists have?
8,200 British and 17,600 Egyptians and Sudanese forces v 60,000 dervishes
What were the religious aspects of Gordon’s early tenure in Sudan?
Seen as Christianity and it’s anti-slavery undermining the Arabic order
When was the successor of the Mahdi killed?
November 1899
How did the inner bureaucracy caused the invasion of the British against Urabi and Tewfik Pasha?
British individuals like Edward Malet overplayed the lack of control Tewfik had in order to cause a British force to threaten him and make the area safe for Europeans again
Who in the Egyptian bureaucracy supported the evacuation of Sudan and why?
British Financial Advisors who saw that the economic burden of stationed troops was not needed for a country in such an economic time of trouble
Who did Gordon wait for in particular before the evacuation?
Garrisons under siege in 3 locations, waiting until ‘every one who wants to go down (the Nile) is given the chance to do so’
Why did Gordon wait in terms of the Mahdi?
He wanted that the Mahdi was ‘crushed’ so that there was stability in the area, while the British had expected the Mahdi would take the power after they left
How many forces did Gordon have and how many did the Mahdi have?
7,000 v 50,000 dervishes
How long was the siege of Khartoum and how did it end?
313 days, with the Nile drying up in winter allowing for the Mahdists to walk up to the walls and attack
What occurred to the Turkish when confronting the Mahdi before the British came in?
1881 Battle of Abu 2 companies of men slaughtered, and 4,000 troops under Yusef Pasha killed as well, allowing the Mahdi to arm itself with the weapons of the dead
What was the Mahdi’s name for the Egyptians?
Turkish Oppressors
Who took part in the British side of the Hicks Expedition?
7,000 men, ‘perhaps the worst army that ever marched to war’ according to Churchill
Where did the Hicks Expedition end and who confronted them?
Battle of El Obied where 40,000 Mahdists armed with guns from previous battles slaughtered Hicks and his forces
Garnet Wolseley; a right or a blight?
Led 40,000 men against the Urabists and later the Gordon Relief Expedition
What were the military defeats in the Mahdist years in Sudan of the British which led to a need for invasion?
Suakin 1885 expedition unable to fix Sudan despite military victories, and Emin Pasha, isolated governor or Equitoria of the Egyptians rescued but at loss to men as they crossed back across the Sudan
Why were the times appurtenant in Egypt for Kitchener’s invasion?
Egyptian army had been reformed with British officers, and the economy had improved enough to facilitate it
How did certain individuals lead to the invasion of the Sudan by Kitchener?
Mahdi escapees explained to army where to attack, as well as whipping up press storm about the barbaric nature of the Mahdi
What new technologies were used by the British in the invasion of Egypt against Urabi?
Railways, telegraph and the new Army Post Office Corps
How did the economic situation in Egypt improve for the British businessman when the Financial Advisors moved in?
Interest rates fell and bond prices rose
What was the name of Kitchener as a leader?
Sirdar
How many Maxim guns did Kitchener take with him?
40
What was Churchill’s description of the Mahdists in Omdurman and how many shoulder arms did they have?
Like a ‘twelfth century Crusader army’ though they had 15,000 shoulder arms
What was the slogan of Urabi’s nationalists?
Egypt for Egyptians (not Turks or Brits)
When did Egypt become financially solvent?
1887
What was Baring’s two missions and how did he act to accommodate these?
Reform Egypt, and evacuate British, he saw that the latter was less important and should only be done when Egypt develops
What did Baring think of the Egyptian people he claimed to care so much for?
Oriental mind was ‘slipshod’ while he learnt Turkish, the land of the power-holding classes rather than the Arabic of the masses
