The Middle East: Conflict, Crisis and Change (Chapters 4 and 5)

Question 1

What were the main reasons for USA wanting peace following the Yom Kippur War?

Answer 1

• OPEC (a group consisting of the major oil exporters with many of them being in the middle east) refused to sell any oil to the USA during and after the Yom Kippur War, causing oil prices to skyrocket and an economic downturn in the USA
• This meant it had incentive to negotiate for peace in the region to ensure a constant supply of oil
• The Yom Kippur War had also brought them dangerously close into a confrontation with the USSR which they wanted to avoid, especially as if they acted as the peacemakers Egypt and Syria may become less Soviet-inclined

Question 2

What was Henry Kissingers shuttle diplomacy of 1974 and what did it achieve?

Answer 2

• He flew back and forth between Israel, Egypt and Syria to try and negotiate peace
• Egypt wanted peace to reopen the canal and Israel were reliant on US aid so negotiations were easy with them, but Syria held strong their claim to the Golan Heights
• However, at this point Israel was not intent on withdrawing troops and Syria or Egypt were not intent on recognition
• That being said in January 1974, Egypt and Israel agreed to pull back from the canal in place of a UN force so it could be cleared and reopened which it did in 1975 to Egypt’s delight
• In addition, OPEC started selling oil to the USA again and a DMZ was set up in the Golan Heights

Question 3

What was Arafat’s speech to the UN (1974)?

Answer 3

• The Arab League recognised the PLO, with Arafat at its head, as the representative voice of Palestinians
• Due to growing concerns about Palestinian terroism, he was invited to speak at the UN
• He explained that they were freedom fighters, not terroists and that they overall wanted peace if they could achieve their aims
• Palestine was consequentially granted the observer status in the UN (though it could not vote, the recognition was significant)

Question 4

What did Sadat initially do in 1977 to try and achieve peace, why, and what were the effects?

Answer 4

• Due to the very poor state of the Egyptian economy, Sadat knew he needed to achieve permanent peace with Israel to cut military spending - especially as the US promised aid if they did this
• He therefore ambitiously visited the Knesset, where the Israeli Prime-minister, Begin, also wanted peace so they could focus on the PLO threat from Lebanon
• Sadat knew he would be branded as a traitor, so wanted to make a Palestinian deal as well but Israel had no intention of returning territories or allowing Palestine to self-govern
• While these talks did not get very far, President Carter stepped in as he saw progress

Question 5

What was agreed at the Camp David Accords (1978) regarding Egypt-Israeli peace?

Answer 5

• The Framework for an Egypt and Israeli Peace was drawn up and agreed to (though it was not to be implemented until a year later)
• Egypt would recognise Israel and be at peace with them in exchange for Sinai
• Egypt would ensure the Straits of Tiran were open for Israel and allow them to use the Suez Canal
• Israel would be compensated for the cost of dismantling their bases in Sinai, while the Egyptians would be paid $1 billion a year for 10 years as promised to help their economy

Question 6

What was agreed at the Camp David Accords (1978) regarding Palestinians?

Answer 6

• The Framework for an Egypt and Israeli Peace was drawn up and agreed to
• Israel accepted the legitimate rights of Palestinians (though did nto say what they were)
• West Bank and Gaza could elect a ‘council’ after 5 years
• Israeli troops would ‘gradually’ withdraw after this happened
• After 5 years a final decision would be made

• It does not mention refugee camps, Jerusalem or the Golan Heights and was very vague and didn’t actually mean much for Israel or the Palestinians
• As a result, none of these things really ever happened

Question 7

What was agreed upon in the Treaty of Washington (1979) and what were the consequences/reactions?

Answer 7

• Sadat and Begin signed a peace treaty in Washington finalising what they had agreed in Maryland
• Sadat and Begin both got what they wanted - peace so they could focus on their own issues
• As with the Camp David accords, it was met with international approval, however the Arab states condemned Egypt for it and threw them out of the Arab league
• The Palestinian issue was not even mentioned here, and they were still unhappy about the vagueness of what was said at Camp David and how they had not been consulted

Question 8

What were the effects of the PLO’s presence in Lebanon?

Answer 8

• Funded by other Arab states, they injected hope into the Palestinian cause by building hospitals, schools ect.
• However for the Lebanese government they were a nightmare as they essentially controlled southern Lebanon, undermined Lebanese-Israeli peace efforts and had their attacks always met with reprisals
• The Christians in Lebanon (about 40%) organised armed groups of phalange militants determined to destroy the PLO, while the Lebanese Muslims and Druze joined the PLO in their defense
• The country descended into civil war by 1975 where 70000 died, with Israel supplying the Christians with weapons and Syria eventually invading the northern half to try and defeat the PLO, though by 1976 they still controlled most of the south

• The different religious groups in Lebanon all took part in one government equally, but ideological differences led to tension which resulted in eventual violence
• Syria invaded as they felt threatened by the PLO

Question 9

What were the causes and events of operation Litani (1978)?

Answer 9

• The Coastal Road Massacre of 1978 in Tel Aviv where 13 PLO militants (who were members of Fatah) hijacked a bus and shot at passing cars, killing 40 innocent civilians
• In a swift reprisal, 26000 Israeli troops invaded southern Lebanon to destroy PLO bases and killing many innocent civilians
• They were eventually stopped by the UN who ordered a ceasefire and installed peacekeepers, they these peacekeepers soon withdrew after facing PLO attacks

• The PLO was able to carry out its attacks as it still controlled the southern part of Lebanon and Beirut
• Despite Arafat wishing to seem more moderate, they still carried out attacks and many rejected even the idea of being moderate

Question 10

What were the causes of Israel’s invasion of Lebanon (1982)?

Answer 10

• The PLO grew stronger with Soviet help, and cross border attacks between the two countries increased in frequency to an unbearable degree, so Israel did something about it
• In June 1982, three Palestinians tried to assasinate the Israeli ambassador in London and Israel finally got the excuse it needed (even though they were not PLO)

Question 11

What were the events of Israel’s invasion of Lebanon (1982)?

Answer 11

• On 6 June, they launched Operation Galilee, invading Lebanon with 70000 troops with their intended aim of establishing a buffer zone
• However they went further into Lebanon, killing 12000 civilians and surrounding Beirut where the PLO HQ was with a new aim to expel the PLO and help the Christian Phalange party come to power
• They beseiged the city, killing 20000 civilians while constantly bombing it until eventually an international force evacuated PLO members, including Arafat to Tunis where they set up HQ
• Israel, still concerned about PLO militants left in Beirut, surrounded the refugee camps of Sabra and Shatila and allowed Phalange militants to search them for militants, seeing brutal atrocities occuring and 3500 civilians dying (which Israel would have known of)

Question 12

What were the impacts of Israel’s invasion of Lebanon (1982)?

Answer 12

• The PLO had been evicted far away where they could not do much harm, meaning Israel was free from PLO missiles
• However Israel received much negative publicity for their brutal methods and disregard for civilian life
• This was especially because of what happened at Sabra and Shatila, and after an investigation Ariel Sharon resigned
• In Lebanon Israel now faced a new threat with formed in 1982 called Hezbollah who were Islamist extremists funded by Iran

Israel remained in Lebanon until 2000 when they withdrew

Question 13

What were the long term causes of the first Intifada?

Answer 13

• Israel’s long term occupation of the territories and their resentment over Israel owning any land at all in the area
• Very crowded, basic and unhygenic living conditions in the occupied territories with harsh Israeli military rule (beatings, interrogations etc.)
• Many Palestinians had to work in Israel to pay a living and pay Israeli taxes yet they had no say in the government
• There was an incursion of Jewish settlers on the edges of the occupied territories and many were scared they would lose their land completely

Question 14

What were the short term causes of the first Intifada?

Answer 14

• In December 1987, an Israeli trader was stabbed, and the following day a truck crashed into two vans carrying innocent Palestinians, killing 4
• Rumours that the crash had been a deliberate reprisal disseminated fast, and protests began to occur at the funerals and Israeli guards were stoned
• After another Palestinian was killed 3 days later, widespread rioting broke out which continued for 5 years

Question 15

What were the events of the first Intifada excluding the Israeli response?

Answer 15

• It lasted for 5 years from 1987 to 1992
• At first there was rioting, burning cars, graffiti and throwing stones in a leaderless and spontaneous way
• Then there was the refusal to buy Israeli goods, pay Israeli taxes and work in Israel which was organised by a new group which had formed called the United National Leadership of the Uprising (UNLU)

Question 16

What was the Israeli reponse to the first Intifada?

Answer 16

• PM Shamir introduced the Iron Fist policy
• Reserves were called up and security was increased, with large numbers of schools being shut down
• Thousands were arrested, with ringleaders being interrogated and their homes being bulldozed
• Brutalities such as the hands of children who threw rocks being broken occured, and hostile crowds were dispersed with rubber or sometimes live ammunition

Question 17

What were the consequences of the first Intifada on Palestinian and Israeli people?

Answer 17

• 1200 Palestinians were killed, and many more wounded or arrested, while 160 Israelis were killed
• Life in the occupied territories became harder as schools were closed, water was restricted and the economies of the territories were damaged by curfews and loss of industry
• The economy of Israel also suffered from Palestinian boycotts and security costs
• Palestinians felt a sense of empowerment and unification

Question 18

What were the effects of the first Intifada on the Middle East and international community politically?

Answer 18

• International sympathy for the Palestinian cause increased
• The PLO and Yasser Arafat changed their stance from wanting the destruction of Israel to proposing a two state solution and promising to accept Israel in return for Palestinian independence
• Israel was forced to reconsider their occuptation of the territories - the Iron Fist policy was economically and politically damaging although there was no easy alternative
• Israeli society became divided, split between the right wanting harsher tactics and the left wanting to negotiate

Question 19

What were the main events which all increased the likelihood of the peace talks (Oslo I) which occured in 1993?

Answer 19

• The first Intifada (1987 - 93)
• Arafat’s change of stance and speech to the UN (1988)
• The Gulf War (1991)
• The collapse of the USSR (1991)
• New Israel government (1992)
• Hamas suicide bombings (1993)

Question 20

What were the causes of Arafat’s change of stance and speech to the UN (1988)?

Answer 20

• The PLO’s power was being diminished by organising groups such as the UNLU and terroist groups such as Hamas so he wanted to regain attention
• After three decades of trying, he knew his ambition of destroying Israel through violence was impossible and he desperately wanted peace for the Palestinians
• In 1988 King Hussein renounced his claims to the West Bank meaning this could be the new home of Palestine
• Therefore in 1988 he recognised Israel’s right to existence and began to advocate for a two state solution, with the US insisting he make a speech to the UN

Question 21

What were the contents and effects of Arafat’s speech to the UN 1988?

Answer 21

• He abjured all terroism, proving he was genuinely interested in a peaceful solution
• He formally recognised Israel, and called for their withdrawal from all occupied territories and for negotiations to commence
• It resulted in the USA becoming open to negotiations with the PLO and pressuring Israel to do the same
• However Israel still saw the PLO and terroists and for them the two state solution was unacceptable so they refused to negotiate
• Hamas and the Islamic Jihad saw the PLO as traitors

Question 22

What was the impact of the Gulf War (1991) on the Arab-Israeli crisis?

Answer 22

• The Arab states which the US allied with to help retake Kuwait (which included Saudi Arabia, Egypt and Syria) now viewed the USA much more favourably, putting them in a stronger negotiating position
• Israel’s reputation improved in the Midde East after they abstained from retaliating to Iraqi airstrikes, putting them in a stronger negotiating position
• Arafat’s and the PLO’S reputation and support suffered due to their support for Iraq during the war, putting them in a weaker negotiating position
• This all meant that Yasser Arafat was far more likely to accept larger demands, increasing the chances of peace talks

Question 23

What was the impact of the collapse of the Soviet Union (1991) on the Arab-Israeli crisis?

Answer 23

• The PLO lost their main source of income and arms, further weaking Arafat’s bargaining position
• Arafat was now under pressure to reach a peace agreement quickly as 200000 Soviet Jews were now migrating to Israel which would result in settlement building, making it more difficult for him to recover the West Bank for Palestinians
• The USA now had more influence over Israel as since it was the only superpower it had less of a need to hold Israel’s favour so it could threaten to withdraw funding if Israel did not negotiate

Question 24

What happened in the shorter term which made Oslo I possible?

Answer 24

• Arafat survived a plane crash in 1992, boosting his popularity and restoring his image meaning Palestinians were more likely to accept any deals he made and making Israel more willing to talk to him
• In 1992, A new Israeli government led to Yitzak Rabin took power who were prepared to make comprises with the Palestinians to stop violence
• A Hamas suicide bombing took place in 1993 in Israel which made Arafat look moderate and reasonable compared to them, making Israel more likely to talk to him

In 1991, peace talks were attempted in Madrid and other places though these failed and resulted in a deadlock as Israel refused to talk to any Palestinians (including the PLO) outside of the occupied territories

Question 25

What were the terms of Oslo I (1993)?

These talks happened in Oslo in secret (to avoid either being seen as a traitor) and was orchestrated by the Norwegian Foreign Minister

Answer 25

• Israel accepted the PLO as the representatives for the Palestinian people, allowing Arafat to return
• The PLO reaffirmed Israel’s right to exist and their condemnation of violence
• The Palestinian National Authority (PNA) was agreed to be set up to democratically run the West Bank and Gaza
• Israel agreed to gradually withdraw troops from the occupied territories
• Negotiations on difficult issues such as borders, settlers and Jerusalem would begin and a permanent peace treaty would be signed in 5 years

This was not a final peace treaty, instead a commitment to finding peace within 5 years

Question 26

What were the terms of Oslo II (1995)?

Oslo II took place two years later to agree on further details, primarily who controlled what in the West Bank

Answer 26

• The West Bank was split into three areas, A, B and C
• Area A, containing 3% of the total land in the West Bank, was under full control by the PNA
• Area B, contining 25% of the total land, was under joint Palestinian civil and Israeli military control
• Area C, consisting of the rest of the West Bank, was to remain under total Israeli control

No Israeli settlers were allowed in Areas A and B

Question 27

What were the initial reactions to the Oslo accords?

Answer 27

• Palestinians, even moderate ones, objected to how so much of the West Bank would still be in Israeli hands and how movement between the zones would likely be difficult
• Many Israelis were delighted at the prospect of peace, though extremist Israelis strongly rejected to any part of Biblical Israel being given away at all

As a result, Rabin was assasinated two months after Oslo II by an Israeli religious extremist

Question 28

Why did the Oslo accords fail to bring peace?

• Oslo I and II, which still had not agreed on contentious issues, initially made progress with the PNA being set up and being fairly popular among moderate Palestinians
• However, things ground to a halt as both sides did not trust eachother

Answer 28

• Israel knew Arafat could not and would not stop terrorist attacks from groups such as Hamas, meaning they felt Arafat had not fufilled his part of the bargain
• This resulted in them imposing road blocks between Palestinian cities and continuing to build settlements
• The Palestinians also felt Israel had not fufilled their part of the bargain as the economic prosperity and freedom they were promised was undermined by the pitiful amount of land they were given and the continuing Israeli settlers and roadblocks

Question 29

Which government replaced Rabin’s after he was assasinated and what was their view on Oslo?

Answer 29

• The government was far right and headed by Benjamin Netanyahu
• They were anti-Oslo and pro settler
• In order to not upset the US, he did not reject Oslo outright, though allowed further settlings and continued to accuse Palestine of violating the Oslo accords

They were voted in due to increasing concerns over Palestinian violence and suicide bombings

Question 30

What were the long term causes of the second Intifada?

Answer 30

• Since much of Gaza and the West Bank were still occupied, much of the initial discontent remained
• Palestinians accused Israel of violating the Oslo Accords by continuing settlements and imposing roadblocks, and were unhappy with the tiny amount of land they were given in the West Bank
• With Israel also making claims that the Palestinians were violating Oslo, a tense atmosphere of discontent was created

The Israeli roadblocks, settlements and resentment towards Palestine were particularily tenacious with Netanyahu in office

Question 31

What were the short term causes of the second Intifada?

Answer 31

• In 2000, Ariel Sharon, who was now the head of an Israeli opposition party, walked into Jerusalem and visited Temple Mount
• It was intentionally provocative and he was surrounded by riot police
• To the Arabs, he was acting illegally by visiting the third most holy site in Islam and he was already hated after the 1982 invasion of Lebanon
• As a result, there was widespread protesting at the site which spread quickly into mass violence

Question 32

What were the events of the second Intifada excluding Israel’s response?

Answer 32

• It lasted for 5 years from 2000 to 2005
• It was far more violent than the first one
• Instead of rocks and insults, knives, bullets, grenades and suicide bombings were employed
• This was partly due to the many terroist groups such as Hamas and Islamic Jihad being stronger and more involved motivated by a new wave of Jihadism, and partly due to the Iranian supply of arms

Question 33

What was the Israeli reponse to the second Intifada?

In 2001, Ariel Sharon had been elected prime minister

Answer 33

• Ariel Sharon promised to meet force, particularily the suicide bombings which had been ramping up, with force, initiating Operation Defensive Shield
• The six largest Palestinian cities in the West Bank were occupied, strict curfews were imposed, 150000 were arrested and hundreds were killed with checkpoints and cordons being left upon their withdrawal
• The IDF laid siege to Arafat’s compound, though he was airlifted out in 2004
• In 2002, Sharon ordered to construction of a massive security fence surrounding Gaza and the West Bank to keep terroists out
• His tactics worked to reduce the number of terroist attacks, though international sympathy for Palestine increased and the security fence created tension over disputes some of it was not built on Israeli land

Question 34

What were the causes and features of the roadmap for peace (2003) and what did it initially lead to?

Answer 34

• Due to their increasing concern over the violence of the second Intifada, the EU, USA, Russia and UN supported a new proposal called the roadmap for peace
• The proposal called for Palestinians to stop all violence, Israel to stop all settlement building, a Palestinian democratic state to be discussed and for talks to be held regarding Jerusalem and Palestinian refugees
• Talks were arranged, but Sharon refused to talk with Arafat (though Arafat appointed a spokeperson called Abbas to solve this)
• Abbas and Sharon met in 2003, agreeing on the roadmap but not on anything specific - however since it did not have Arafat’s support violence resumed and nothing happened

Question 35

What did the roadmap for peace (2003) end up leading to?

Answer 35

• Following Arafat’s death in 2004 and Abbas taking power, both sides were much more willing to negotiate
• Sharon then agreed to meet with Abbas, and promised by US aid, Palestinian groups accepted a ceasefire and Israel agreed to withdraw from the towns it had been occupying
• This marked the end of the second Intifada, and was followed by the full withdrawal from Gaza by the Israelis in terms of soldiers and settlers in 2005 at the behest of the USA
• This was met with praise internationally and by the Palestinians, though Sharon lost the support of many Israelis

Question 36

What were the impacts of the second Intifada?

Answer 36

• 5000 Palestinians were killed and many more arrested, the economies of the territories damaged, homelessness and general hardship increased to
• Israeli tactics such as implementing checkpoints made life difficult
• Palestinians received negative publicity due to the suicide bombings, though partly won through Gaza being internally free from Israelis now
• 1000 Israelis died, there was economic and psychological dmage, and Israel received further negative publicity for their harsh tactics

Question 37

Why did the road map for peace end up failing?

Answer 37

• Despite optimism in 2005, the next stages of the roadmap for peace never happened
• Sharon died in 2006 and a less accomodating government came in, with the settlers becaming even more pertinacious about staying in the West Bank
• Hamas won the 2006 elections in Gaza
• Since they opposed anything but the complete destruction of Israel, peace talks were impossible
• They continuously fired rockets into Israel which were always met by reprisals
• They also opposed the Palestininan government in the West Bank led by Abbas (who is still president), causing violence between the two groups
• The conflict in Gaza created tension between the the Arabs and the Israelis, sparking anger amongst Palestinian people everywhere and making peace impossible

Question 38

What were the causes of the Gaza War (2008-09)?

Answer 38

• Constant Hamas rocket attacks met with harsh Israeli reprisals (consisting of counter rockets and blockades) continued on
• Some respite was brought by an Egyptian organised ceasefire in 2008
• In this time, Israel began preparing for a powerful assault of Gaza aimed at removing the Hamas militants and stopping the rocket attacks
• The general resentment between Israel and Hamas, as well as Hamas and the Palestinian Government in the West Bank led by Abbas was also a cause

After Israel’s failed invasion of Lebanon in 2006 to remove Hezbollah, Israel may have been trying to show to Iran that they were still strong

Question 39

What were the events of the Gaza War (2008-09)?

Answer 39

• In December 2008, Operation Cast Lead begun where Israel airstrikes immeadiately hit hundreds of targets in Gaza, destroying important buildings and infrastructure and killing hundreds of civilians
• In January 2009, with Hamas responding with rocket attacks, Israel launched a ground invasion to destroy rocket-launching infrastructure, sieze equiment and kill fighters
• This lasted for 3 weeks until they eventually pulled out believing they achieved their aim

Question 40

What were the effects of the Gaza War (2008-09)

Answer 40

• Many homes, factories, mosques, hospitals and roads were destroyed, and thousands of civilians were killed with most of the population now having to rely on aid
• Very few Israelis had been killed and they had achieved their aim of destroying Hamas military infrastructure and tunnels, and killing fighters
• However the media accused them on needlessly killing civilians, destroying schools, and using illegal weapons such as white phosphorus
• Furthermore, the Israeli gains were only short term, with the rocket attacks soon retstarting and the hatred for Israel only being more widespread

So despite decades of trying to make peace deals, relations between Israelis and Palestinians were essetnially as bad as they were in 1967