A World Divided: Superpower Relations (Chapters 4 and 5)

Question 1

What were the causes the Berlin Refugee Problem?

Answer 1

• West Berlin and Germany had received much foreign investment from the West, so was wealthier and had a higher quality of life compared to East Berlin and Germany.
• East Germany also had a repressive communist regime with little freedom of speech, which many people did not like
• Therefore, many people moved to from East to West Germany, often through Berlin, seeking a higher quality of life and more freedoms
• In particular, skilled workers were leaving as they knew they could achieve a higher salary in the West

Question 2

What were the effects of the Berlin Refugee Problem?

Answer 2

• East Germany was losing many people, in particular skilled professionals which were people the already struggling economy could not afford to lose - for example by 1958 3 million East Germans had moved
• It was also a huge blow to communism and the Soviets as it could be seen that people were by choice moving from a Soviet communist regime to a Western capitalist regime, meaning one was preferred over the other
• This all gave Kruschev serious cause for concern, therefore he introduced the Berlin Ultimatum

Question 3

What was the Berlin Ultimatum (1958)?

Answer 3

• Kruschev wanted Berlin to come part of East Germany, but he knew the Allies would not agree to leave
• Therefore, as part of the Berlin Ultimatum he demanded: 1. Berlin be demilitarised and Western Troops Withdrawn 2. Berlin should become a free city (So it could become part of East Germany)
• He gave the West 6 months to make these changes or another blockade would be put in place

Question 4

What were the effects of the Berlin Ultimatum initially?

Answer 4

• The West were angered as they saw it as a way for the Soviet Union to try and spread communism, and would not agree to his demands
• However neither side wanted this to result in a war, so a series of talks were held

Question 5

What happened in the Geneva May 1959 talks and the Camp David September 1959 talks?

Answer 5

• In the Geveva talk, both sides made proposals but no agreement was made, however Eisenhower invited Kruschev to the USA for further talks
• In the Camp David talks, Krushchev agreed to withdraw the Berlin Ultimatum but no way forward was finalised
• This talk did seem to improve relations, and further talks were planned for the year after in Paris

Question 6

What happened during the Paris Summit Conference of May 1960?

Answer 6

• As the talks were beginning, the Soviets announced that the had shot down an American U-2 spy plane
• Eisenhower initially rejected this and called it a weather aeroplane, but they then revealed they had captured the pilot and confirmed he was spying
• Eisenhower refused to apologise, leading to Kruschev walking out of the talks

Question 7

What were the effects of the U-2 crisis?

Answer 7

• Any hope for improving relations via the Camp David talks were ruined and tensions increased
• Any hope for a final agreement on the Berlin Ultimatum was ruined
• Soon after Kennedy had been elected, Krushchev reintroduced the Berlin Ultimatum at Vienna talks in 1961 as no final decision had been made at any talks previously, plunging them into deep conflict

Question 8

Why did Krushchev finally decide to build the Berlin Wall?

Answer 8

• The Refugee crisis was still very bad
• After reintroducing the Berlin Ultimatum to Kennedy, he made no concessions at all
• Krushchev had little time for a blockade, so work on the Berlin Wall began, with it first being a fence and then finally becoming a full concrete wall

Question 9

What were the effects of the Berlin wall on Berlin/Germany?

Answer 9

• The wall surrounded the whole of West Berlin, but was in East German territory so was not considered an act of war - the border between East and West Germany was also reinforced
• It split up families and friends, and meant people lost their jobs - the wall was heavily guarded, and crossings were only available at checkpoints where you needed the correct documents
• Overall, it angered Berliners, especially those who were separated from their family and lost their jobs and caused some short-term protests
• However, once the protests were done it may have reduced some of the tensions between East and West Germany as it solved the refugee crisis

Question 10

What were the effects of the Berlin Wall on superpower relations?

Answer 10

• At first increased tensions, as the West were hoping for a reunification. They were also outraged at how it split people up and how they had not been notified at all of the Soviets plans to build the wall
• It also increased tensions due to ideological differences. It showed the world that the Soviets had to lock people in to stop them from wanting to leave a communist regime. It was also seen by the USA as the Soviets trying to expand communism
• However it ultimately calmed the refugee crisis, which led to a decrease in tensions as there was not this everpresent impending issue

Question 11

What were the causes of the Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)?

Answer 11

• A group of revolutionaries ovethrew the pro-American government on Cuba
• Much of the land and industry in Cuba was American owned, for example the oil refineries, but Castro decided to take over all land and industry in Cuba anyway
• Cuba started to developed communist ties, making economic ties with the Soviet Union
• These two points deeply concerned Kennedy, prompting him to send an invasion force of 1400 Cuban exiles to try and take back power, which failed catastrophically

Question 12

What were the effects of the Bay of Pigs Invasion (1961)?

Answer 12

• The USA were embarassed and humiliated
• It made it seem like they were trying to expand capatalism by supporting an uprising against a countries government, just like they accused the Soviets of doing by trying to overtake all of Berlin
• Kruschev said it was clear evidence of the population of communism due to the fact that the Cuban people were happy with their government
• It secured Cuba’s ties to the Soviet Union, Castro declared himself a communist and asked the Soviets for protection against another invasion, including the provision of arms to Cuba
• This arms agreement is what prompted the missile launch sites to be built on Cuba

Question 13

What were the reasons for the Soviets building nuclear missile bases on Cuba?

Answer 13

• The Soviets felt the need to retaliate to the USA’s missile bases in Turkey
• Krushchev was afraid of another American invasion of Cuba, so wanted to ensure its safety
• He wanted to outwit Kennedy and protect communism
• It gave him the ‘first-strike’ policy, where if there was a nuclear war he would have an advantage

Question 14

Why did Kennedy feel the need to respond to the Soviets building nuclear missile bases on Cuba?

Answer 14

• First strike policy and higher chance of a strike on US soil
• If Kennedy did not respond him and the USA would be seen as weak and the nation would lose its pride - this was especially important due to his chagrin following the failure of the Bay of Pigs Invasion
• This would allow Krushchev to think he can push the USA around more in areas such as the Berlin conflict

Question 15

What did Kennedy do in response to the Soviet missile bases on Cuba and why?

Answer 15

• In October 1962, he decided to set up a naval blockade around Cuba in international waters, and called it a ‘quarantine’ so it was not viewed as an act of war
• It meant no ships could pass through without US permission, and prevented any further military supplies from being brought to Cuba (there was a shipment coming)
• While there were already bases on Cuba, it would force Krushchev to negotiate

Question 16

How did the Soviets respond to the blockade and what negotiations were made?

Answer 16

• As neither side wanted a war, the blockade was not pushed through and Soviet ships turned around
• War was avoided, but there were still missile bases on Cuba
• Therefore, Krushchev sent a telegram saying they would remove the missiles if America promised not to invade Cuba, however, before they could respond, another telegram was sent asking them to remove their missiles in Turkey in exchange for the Cuban missiles being removed
• Kennedy only decided to respond to the first telegram, though secretly removed the Turkish missiles in order to appease relations without looking weak

Question 17

What were the effects of the Cuban Missile Crisis on international relations?

Answer 17

• It showed what happened if both countries followed a policy of brinksmanship, which made the two superpowers more reluctant to be in conflict, therefore the hotline was set up and the Nuclear Non-Proliferaion Treaty signed, among other treaties
• Therefore, in a way, the Cuban Missile Crisis led to the world becoming a safer place with reduced tensions
• However, it also highlighted key divisions between the two superpowers ideologically and how they were willing to do anything to defend or attack nations who supported or opposed them
• Both leaders claimed they were the victors of the dispute, however Kennedy seemed to gain support, while Krushchev lost much support (leading to his dismissal on 1964)

Question 18

What were the causes of the Czechoslovakia crisis (1968-69)

Answer 18

• Following WW2, a Soviet supported coup took place where a pro-Soviet communist Government was established headed by Klement Gottwald
• Life was oppressive under communist rule, with censorship, propaganda and people having very little freedom and anybody showing resistance or non-conformity to the Soviets being harshly persecuted
• As a result, there were many protests, culminating in 1966 with widespread student demonstrations
• Therefore in 1968, Alexander Dubcek was elected as the head of the Czech Communist Party who promised to make reforms

The Soviet leadership approved of Dubcek as he promised to make the Czech government more popular and reduce the risk of uprising while remaining loyal to Moscow

Question 19

What reforms did Alexander Dubcek make which initiated the Prague Spring?

Answer 19

• While he was committed to the Soviets and the Warsaw Pact, he thought people should have more freedoms. He called it ‘socialism with a human face’
• Censorship was relaxed and critisism of the government permitted
• Trade unions and regional governments were granted increased power
• Trade and openness with the West increased
• Multi-party elections were discussed, but never instated

Question 20

What were the effects of Dubcek’s reforms?

Answer 20

• They were met with great enthusiasm from the Czech people, but were less popular in Moscow despite Dubcek’s assurance that they would remain part of the Warsaw Pact
• However, Brezhnev disapproved of these reforms with fears that other countries may follow suit and that freedoms were dangerous - this concern was accentuated by Romania and Yugoslavia already showing signs of defiance
• As a result, Brezhnev warned Dubcek not to further his reforms, but after Dubcek planned to hold talks with Romania and Yugoslavia, Brezhnev took action
• He sent 500000 Warsaw Pact troops inyo Czechoslovakia, ending the Prague Spring with little opposition
• Dubcek was arrested and sent to Moscow to reverse his reforms, but after he refused, in 1969 he was removed from office and replaced with Gustav Husak, a loyal communist

Question 21

What were the effects of the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia?

Answer 21

• The Brezhnev doctrine was layed out, stating that actions of communist countries affected all communist countries, and it was the duty of those other countries to prevent those actions - this heightened his control over the satellite states
• The USA and the West were angered over their actions as they saw it as oppressive and controlling, so much so that a UN resolution criticising the invasion was drafted by the US, though vetoed by the Soviets
• It became clearer to the Soviets that the US had little control over their actions, increasing their confidence - this was especially the case as the US were engaged in the Vietnam war and were becoming less confrontational and likely to take action

Question 22

What was the hotline and why was it set up?

Answer 22

• A direct line of communication between Moscow and Washington to allow for discussion in times of crisis
• Though it was not used very often, it showed that both sides were willing to take steps to reduce the risk of a war and had reason to improve relations

Question 23

What was the Limited Test Ban Treaty of 1963?

Answer 23

Signed by the USA, Soviet Union and Britain, and eventually 113 other countries, the detonation of nuclear weapons was banned in the atmosphere, oceans, outer space, or anywhere outside the borders of the conducting country due to increased understanding of the dangers surrounding radioactive fallout

This was one of the treaties of the 1960s which hinted towards détente, however the 1960s were actually a time of low relations. That being said, these treaties pointed towards the fact that both superpowers had reason to want better relations

Question 24

What was the Outer Space Treaty of 1967?

Answer 24

• A treaty signed by the USA, Soviet Union, Britain and 12 other countries which prevented the arms race from spreading into space
• It stated that the exploration of space must not be for military purposes and must be for the benefit of all countries
• It also banned detonating WMD in space and causing contamination of or damage to celestial bodies

Question 25

What was the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty of 1968?

Answer 25

• A treaty signed by the USA, Soviet Union and 59 other states which prevented the spread of nuclear weapons
• It stated that nuclear weapon states must work towards disarmement and must not aid the development of nuclear weapons in non-nuclear weapon states

This was easily accepted at the time as many states had not the technological or financial ability to support the development of nuclear weapons, however, today the treaty is no longer accepted or enforced by many countries

Question 26

Why did the USA want détente?

Answer 26

• The Vietnam war was very costly (170 billion - money which could be spent domestically such as solving inequality) and had major opposition from the American public, and the newly elected Nixon in 1968 had promised to end the war, so the USA wanted to thaw relations with the Soviets so they could focus on ending the war
• The Vietnam war also showed them that military intervention was not always the answer and that the USA could not always rely on its military strength to get what it wanted, so a thaw in relations was favourable for this reason
• The USA was also concerned about the growing power of China, and did not want to see a Sino-Soviet communist-coalition against the USA, so had reason to improve relations with the Soviets and establish diplomatic ties with China to ensure this did not happen

Question 27

Why did the Soviet Union want détente?

Answer 27

• They had a struggling economy, so had reason to reduce arms spending which was 30% of their GDP at the time
• They were falling behind technologically, so felt improving relations with the USA would facilitate the sharing of knowledge
• They felt they were militarily equal to the USA at this point, particularily in the wake of the Vietnam War, so were able to negotiate issues such as Eastern Europe from a position of strength given improved relations
• The Soviets too were concerned about China, especially given that their relations were particularily low at this point due to border and leadership disputes meaning China had reason to improve relations with the USA in case a Sino-Soviet war broke out
• The Soviets were therefore also concerned about a coalition of the other two powers, so had reason to want to improve relations with both the USA and China

Question 28

How did relations between the USA and China change between 1949 and 1972 (ping pong diplomacy)?

Answer 28

• They were poor to start given China’s involvement in the Korean War as well as the USA’s commitment to defending Taiwan between 1954 and 1958
• However by 1969 suspicions of the Soviet Union meant they were ready to improve relations, and as a result of the American and Chinese ping-pong teams mixing at a tournament, Henry Kissinger and the Chinese prime-minister met and established relations
• In 1972, relations had improved and Mao and Nixon met to sign an agreement on Taiwan where they agreed it was a part of China (things proceeded to change after that…)

Question 29

What was Ostpolitik and what was its role in détente?

Answer 29

• Pressure and aid from Europe to improvement in relations between superpowers
• Following the invasion of Czechoslovakia, there was widescale protest across Europe, and in a movement led by Willy Brandt (chancellor of West Germany), an ease in relations between Western European countries and Eastern European countries was encouraged which boosted détente

Question 30

What were the terms of the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (1972) signed by the Soviets and USA?

This came about as a result of détente (détente in action)

Answer 30

• Anti-ballistic missiles were limited to 100 and in 2 launch sites only for both countries
• Restrictions on ICBMs were put in place, though the Soviets were allowed more as the USA had more strategic bombers
• Steps were also taken to reduce the risk of nuclear war, expanding on previous treaties

Question 31

How effective was the first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty?

Answer 31

• Not very effective, as it was simply a piece of paper with no enforcement, and both countries could still destroy themselves many times over
• It also did not account for new technologies such as how the US could now carry multiple warheads on a single missile (which they did not tell the Soviets)
• That being said, it had major symbolic importance and showed that both countries were willing to improve relations, shown by the subsequent visits and negotiations for SALT 2