The Liberal State, c1911–18 Flashcards

Question

Examples of successes from 1896 for the Liberal government and the Italian people

Answer 1

𝟭𝟴𝟵𝟵-𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟬 - Industrial production doubled 𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟬 - radicals and republicans won only 34 and 28 seats respectively (good for Liberal govt) although they were still considered a threat because of their base in the north of Italy. 𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟬-𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟳 - government expenditure doubled on public works. 𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟰 - Giolitti refused to crush general strike in northern Italy which actually fell apart after a few days because of a lack of organisation (good for Liberal govt) 𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟰 - Nitti introduced a law to stimulate industrial growth in Naples. 𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟭 - Literacy rates had improved (37.6% illiteracy as opposed to 69% in 1870) 𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟮 - Universal manhood suffrage was introduced.

Answer 2

It doubled

Answer 3

Radicals and republicans won only 34 and 28 seats respectively (good for Liberal govt) although they were still considered a threat because of their base in the north of Italy.

Answer 4

Government expenditure doubled on public works.

Answer 5

It fell apart, due to a lack of organisation.

Answer 6

A law to stimulate industrial growth in Naples.

Answer 7

Tommaso Tittoni became PM for one month

Answer 8

37.6% illiteracy as opposed to 69% in 1870

Answer 9

Universal manhood suffrage was introduced

Answer 10

Half of Italy's 2.2 million industrial workers. They accounted for 55% of industrial income.

Answer 11

In the early 20th century, Italy was a slowly modernising country, but one that had deep, geographical and economic divisions. The economy was not as industrialised as other European powers and southern Italy remained largely agricultural and poor. Any reforms that were implemented by the Liberal government were unable to effectively heal division within Italian society. As a result, many people migrated to countries such as America, looking for a better way of life. The Italian political system was weak as well, particularly the system of Trasformismo, which newer political parties were able to exploit at the expense of the Liberals. Despite all its weaknesses and division, Italy still appeared to be a great colonial power, however by 1911 this looked increasingly unlikely.

Answer 12

The method of making a flexible, centrist coalition government which isolated the extremes of the left/right-wing in Italian politics. Political dealings.

Answer 13

Not a structured party. They were, instead, a series of informal, personal groupings with no formal links to political constituencies.

Answer 14

Used to describe the split between the Italian state and the Catholic Church, which refused to recognise Italy as a state. "A dispute regarding the temporal power of the popes as rulers of a civil territory in the context of the Italian Risorgimento".

Answer 15

Unification of Italy as a new nation in 1870

Answer 16

Movement that sought to bring under Italian rule various lands that were considered to be culturally, linguistically or historically Italian, but were not included in the unified Italian Kingdom of 1870. Italy's unification would only be complete if ALL Italian speaking lands were incorporated (e.g Trieste and Fiume) Redemption of Italian territory.

Answer 17

* Socialists (PSI) * Nationalists (ANI) * Catholics * Radicals and republicans

Answer 18

Brought the Nationalists together under the leadership of Corradini. By 1914, it had huge support.

Answer 19

The PSI and had 79 deputies in Parliament (this was a lot of votes and was going to be a problem for the Liberal government)

Answer 20

Mirrored Italy's industrialisation as the population of Italy's northern cities expanded due to internal migration.

Answer 21

At a local level - Catholics were part of governing coalitions in Turin, Bologna, Florence and Venice. The Church also had considerable influence in the north of Italy.

Answer 22

HALF of Italy's 2.2 million industrial workers - shows divisions between North and South.

Answer 23

The South accounted for only 27% of the wealth in Italy.

Answer 24

NO. The ANI were not willing to work with the Liberals, making them incredibly difficult to deal with. They were the party MOST opposed to Giolitti's policies, favouring steady colonial expansion, a stronger army, a ban on public sector strikes and stronger police powers.

Answer 25

* Favoured steady colonial expansion * Favoured a strong army * Wanted a ban on public sector strikes * Wanted stronger police powers * Wanted an AGGRESSIVE foreign policy to claim lands in Africa and claim irredente lands.

Answer 26

It was partly successful, particularly with moderates like Filippo Turati. But Giolitti found it increasingly hard to win over the entire PSI because the maximalists in the socialist party (one of whom was Mussolini) wanted to overthrow the state.

Answer 27

The maximalists in the socialist party (one of whom was Mussolini) wanted to overthrow the state.

Answer 28

neutralise the threat of the Nationalists.

Answer 29

Because of the humiliating defeat for the Italians at Adwa and the shame of poverty of Italy meaning many Italians were emigrating for a better life.

Answer 30

1892 - it was one of the few formal political parties

Answer 31

The Partito Socialista Italiano

Answer 32

Giolitti announced the Church and state were "two parallel lines, which should never meet".

Answer 33

halt the rise of nationalism.

Answer 34

Corrupt and weak

Answer 35

Filippo Turati

Answer 36

Why was the south so backward and poor?

Answer 37

Swung his support in favour of Giolitti

Answer 38

Giolitti enacted a series of reforms to allow workers to strike and hold peaceful protests.

Answer 39

240,000 peasants This is good from Giolitti

Answer 40

Via trasformismo by offering a variety of social reforms like state-subsidised sickness and an old age fund for the merchant navy. Leading socialist Leonida Bissolati was even offered a place in Giolitti's cabinet (but he declined).

Answer 41

A number of educated middle class supporters who viewed it as a force for national renewal, which would undermine the increasing support for the socialists, destroy the corruption of the current system, and bring in new dynamic Italy.

Answer 42

The Socialists

Answer 43

He was not willing to give the Pope any concessions on Roman territory and so was unable to solve the "Roman question" which still festered at the heart of tension between Church and state.

Answer 44

That it had failed, and only Socialism could solve Italy's problems of political corruption, persistent rural poverty and the widening gap between the ruling elite and working class.

Answer 45

1,500 strikes

Answer 46

Placed responsibility for primary schooling on central government.

Answer 47

That Giolitti's reforms were aimed at avoiding instability rather than actually helping the poor.

Answer 48

Policies, such as raising the minimum working age to 12 years and reducing food taxes to make food more affordable.

Answer 49

Food taxes

Answer 50

"the least of the Great Powers"

Answer 51

A left-wing offshoot of the PSI that were more extreme. They despised the Liberal state and believed in violent revolution.

Answer 52

Brought him into considerable conflict with the Catholic Church and the Nationalists as they opposed socialism.

Answer 53

Italians had the same life expectancy as other Europeans and the national average for illiteracy was 37.6%.

Answer 54

Around 1.5 million

Answer 55

1906 When he brought in a new policy of non-intervention in labour disputes and courts to settle pay disputes.

Answer 56

Giolitti did offer concessions to the Church in return for support e.g he promoted Catholic interests in education.

Answer 57

* Translates to the donkey - suggests he's stupid * He appeals to different people * He's not relatable * He appeals more to the rich * Changes to adapt - not genuine and two-faced * He's not trustworthy * Tried to appeal to Catholics, socialists and nationalists. Might be clever, manipulating, expedient and corrupt. * He was certainly a significant political force in 20th century Italy.

Answer 58

Germany and Austria Hungary. Created a difficult situation as Italy and Austria's interests overlapped in the Balkans.

Answer 59

* In an attempt to create a more aggressive foreign policy and wanted to assert its dominance in North Africa to compete with France (imperialism). * Pressure from the Nationalists. * France was consolidating her control over Morocco and Giolitti was worried that France would invade Libya next which would be of considerable embarrassment to Italy, as Italians saw Libya as a country that should be part of their empire and under no circumstances should it be French. * The Catholic Church also had considerable financial interests in Libya, causing them to encourage the government to invade. For Giolitti therefore, invasion of Libya would be a way of uniting the Italian people behind his government by gaining support of both the Catholics and Nationalists.

Answer 60

The Ottoman Empire

Answer 61

29th September 1911

Answer 62

It was greeted with an outpouring of national enthusiasm.

Answer 63

* Met with an outpouring of national enthusiasm. * Italy's navy had seized all ports and coastal towns within three weeks. * 70,000 troops were committed to the invasion. * On the 8th October, Libya was formally handed over to the Italians by the Ottomans. It appeared that Italy and Giolitti had won a great victory, especially as this was Italy's first colony overseas. By 1912, it appeared that Giolitti's programme of creating a unified Italy had been successful.

Answer 64

Seized all ports and coastal towns

Answer 65

8th October (1911

Answer 66

It appeared that Giolitt's programme of created a unified Italy had been successful. His social reforms had pacified the PSI who were now prepared to support his government, and the Catholic Church was co-operating with the Liberals in several key areas .

Answer 67

Seems to galvanise nationalistic support for the government.

Answer 68

Pleases the Nationalists and Catholic Church. Not so much the PSI, he pacifies them instead.

Answer 69

The war did not actually help Giolitti absorb the Nationalists. Rather, it increased support for the ANI, who claimed credit for the policy and led to them demanding more from the Liberal government.

Answer 70

The war did not actually help Giolitti absorb the Nationalists.

Answer 71

They claimed that his handling of the war was mismanaged and had led to a huge loss of life (3,500 Italians died)

Answer 72

1,300 million lire

Answer 73

The PSI argued that Italy's wealth was being wasted on foreign campaigns.

Answer 74

The Catholics and the nationalists formed a temporary alliance which weakened the moderate socialists to the extent that the revolutionary wing of the party seized control, ruling out further cooperation with the Liberal government. Any moderate socialists were expelled from the party. Giolitti's attempts to absorb the socialists into the liberal state had ended in failure.

Answer 75

Realises he needs to extend the franchise as support was high, people fought for your country etc. Thought by giving more people the vote, they would vote for him.

Answer 76

the extension of the franchise.

Answer 77

* Men who had fought in the war, so all men who had completed military service * All men over 30 could vote by 1912

Answer 78

Meant 70% of Italy's electorate were now illiterate

Answer 79

He hoped that extending the franchise would increase the popularity of the Liberals as men in more rural areas (more conservative) could now vote.

Answer 80

The 1913 election

Answer 81

* Liberal deputies won 318 seats, a loss of 71 from the 1909 elections. * The PSI now had 20% of the vote * The conservative peasants were voting for the Catholic Party rather than the Liberals. This meant Giolitti was now RELIANT on CATHOLIC SUPPORT, especially as he had promised to make concessions to the Church in return for their support.

Answer 82

318 seats, a load of 71 from the 1909 elections Shows failure of the franchise extension

Answer 83

318 seats, a loss of 71 from the 1909 elections.

Answer 84

PSI now had 20% of the vote (huge number)

Answer 85

The Catholic Party rather than the Liberals. This meant Giolitti was now RELIANT on CATHOLIC SUPPORT, especially as he had promised to make concessions to the Church in return for their support.

Answer 86

Trasformismo was now impossible as the Socialists and the Nationalists would not work with a Liberal government that was making concessions to the Catholics. They don't like his concessions. This saw Giolitti stand down in the spring of 1914. He was seen as the leader of a weak liberal government that alienated everyone but the Catholics.

Answer 87

21st March 1914

Answer 88

* Socialists and radicals withdrew their support for his coalition government * Extending the franchise had led to a situation where mass suffrage meant that actually nationalists and Catholics got the most support * Trasformismo was not working * Libya ended up as a failure By 1914, a wall of opposition had built up against Giolitti and his political methods. His alliances had fallen apart and he was losing support from many parties.

Answer 89

* Increased support for the Nationalists as the ANI claimed credit for the policy and led to them demanding more from the Liberal government. ANI also capitalised on dislike of Giolitti by claiming he mismanaged the war. Lost total support of ANI over Libya. * Loss of life - 3,500 Italians died fighting. * Cost 1,300 million lire. * Destroyed Giolitti's cooperation with the PSI which had been key to programme of Trasformismo. * The Catholics and Nationalists formed a temporary alliance which weakened moderate socialists and increased the influence of maximalists in the party. Maximalists took control of PSI. * Franchise extension meant Liberals lost seats and socialists won 20% of the vote. * Socialists and nationalists unwilling to work with Giolitti as he was making concessions to Catholics. Giolitti resigns as PM in March 1914.

Answer 90

fall in crop prices.

Answer 91

Emigrants refused to move to Libya to start an Italian colony.

Answer 92

Antonio Salandra

Answer 93

His support floundered, and by June 1914 Italy seemed to be on the verge of anarchy. The outbreak of World War One would be yet another challenge for Salandra in the years to come.

Answer 94

Looked like the invasion had been a success. Both the PSI and Catholics were co-operated with the Liberals, Italy seemed unified.

Answer 95

* Political problems e.g limited franchise * Economic problems e.g northern and southern Italy having different wealth * Social problems e.g illiteracy

Answer 96

Not until 1912 that the vote was extended to most adult men. Many Italians felt alienated from the political system.

Answer 97

Nationalism

Answer 98

Radicals and Republicans - because their base in the north of Italy and their desire to overhaul the political system was threatening.

Answer 99

They only represented the professional classes, not the bulk of the population

Answer 100

The weakness of the ruling class in the south and peasant discontent as a result of this.

Answer 101

Political parties were so weak that factions were formed to make coalitions known as Trasformismo. This led to instability as they easily fell apart.

Answer 102

20 different governments

Answer 103

Often formed coalitions of opposition against Liberals governments whom the viewed as the party of the elite.

Answer 104

A significant amount of land was taken from the Church (the Papal States) and so most Catholic politicians withdrew from political life, paving the way for Liberal Italy to dominate. Only in 1913 was an alliance formed between Catholics and Liberals.

Answer 105

Known as Deputies, they often served local interests rather than national ones. This meant they often switched political allegiance and were open to bribes.

Answer 106

More than 69% of Italians were illiterate in 1870. Rates were higher in the south.

Answer 107

Industry was limited and localised due to lack of resources and poor transport and communications.

Answer 108

A series of natural disasters in southern Italy damaged the economy and led to anger amongst the people at the lack of aid provided by the government.

Answer 109

Poverty was increasing in the south, leading to diseases like cholera and typhus. The main killers here were TB (tuberculosis) and malaria.

Answer 110

Increased migration led to overcrowding in cities and high infant mortality rates (around 40% of all registered deaths in Italy were under 5 years old)

Answer 111

Around 40%

Answer 112

About 200,000 Italians This was seen as a disaster as their skills could have been used to strengthen the economy.

Answer 113

Increased social divisions in rural areas as labourers were often sacked. This led to political AGITATION.

Answer 114

Southern Italian landowners wanted to protect their own interests.

Answer 115

They were disastrous e.g Italy's defeat at the Battle of Adwa in Abyssinia 1896 was a humiliation.

Answer 116

Northern Italy had 48% of the nation's wealth Southern Italy had 27% of the nation's wealth

Answer 117

Economic growth was limited to the north of Italy whilst the south remained poorer.

Answer 118

55% of industrial income.

Answer 119

Agriculture

Answer 120

In the North, more wheat crops were being produced by 1910 and the Po Valley in the North was very fertile. In the South, items like oil, wine and citrus fruits were produced although land was less fertile due to deforestation.

Answer 121

Industrial production doubled 1899-1910

Answer 122

Widespread economic and social problems made for a challenging political environment. Systematic poverty, unrest and the huge divide between the north and the south of the country made Italy hard to govern.

Answer 123

People whose situation and views could be safely ignored now had a political vote and they were NOT inclined to support the Liberals, whom they saw as ignoring their concerns.

Answer 124

Limited industrial development drew people to the northern cities which was increasing the potential for their radicalisation.

Answer 125

The fact that Italy strove for international recognition in the early 20th century meant she was being drawn into the international system of alliances and aiming to establish colonies abroad to cement its great power status. This would help draw Italy into the First World War.

Answer 126

Language, culture and poltics

Answer 127

Between 2.5% and 10% of Italians were able to speak standard Italian, and not all Italians supported unification. Italy had to develop political systems and begin the process of becoming a properly unified country.

Answer 128

The new state established a parliamentary system similar to that in Britain. The constitution originated as the constitution of Piedmont of 1848, known as the Statuto Albertino. It was the result of popular pressure in a time of unrest in Europe, guaranteeing equality before the law, rights of free assembly and a free press. It also set up the system of constitutional monarchy and elected parliament that Italy inherited in 1870. King was head of state and had executive power. The king actually had very far reaching powers.

Answer 129

* Head of state * Could appoint and dismiss ministers (even PM) and senators * Controlled foreign policy * Was the face of the regime at times of crisis * Ran everyday affairs of the country

Answer 130

* Senate (the upper House) * Chamber of Deputies (the elected Lower House or Parliament) Senate members appointed by the King for life. Chamber of deputies elected every five years and was more politically powerful than the senate.

Answer 131

* Although Chamber of Deputies was, in theory, democratically elected, it was based upon a very limited franchise. franchise was the same as had been originally introduced in the Statuto Albertino in 1848. and was very conservative, limitations on age, property ownership and education qualifications. As a result, popular participation in Italy before 1912 was extremely limited

Answer 132

* Franchise was limited and conservative so Chamber of Deputies wasn't really elected fairly * Confused and weak political system/parties * Trasformismo was weak and led to instability * Bribery from individual politicians to political opponents * Chamber of deputies primarily served local interests instead of national ones

Answer 133

ONLY 500,000 COULD VOTE out of 32 million Italians, meaning that less than 2% of the country had a say in who was elected. In 1882, the vote was extended to 25% of adult males, but it was not until 1912 that the right to vote was extended to most adult men, increasing the number of people voting from 3 million to 8 million.

Answer 134

* Politics was dominated by a small and wealthy elite. * The system was extremely confused, with party labels being adopted but little sign that they were meaningful, rather than a vehicle for ambitious men to gain the influence they desired. * As political parties were so weak, governments were formed of factions that had come together to make a coalition government - known as trasformismo. Led to significant degree of instability in Italian political life. Coalitions could easily fall apart, which led to the succession of short-term governments (there were more than 20 different governments between 1870-1915) * Individual politicians frequently bribed political opponents and ministers seeking to build a government would offer potential colleagues prominent jobs or financial incentives. * Members of parliaments (Chamber of Deputies) were primarily serving local interests rather than national ones, so they were open to switching allegiance or faction if they were offered sufficient inducements e. polices favourable to their region or promotion. Also lots of different prime ministers from 1870-1918.

Answer 135

Italy remained politically disunited, with little sense of national politics or unity. Many felt unification had left them behind and that democracy was an illusion.

Answer 136

* Liberals * Radicals and republicans * Socialists * Catholics * Nationalists

Answer 137

Kingdom of Italy was founded on liberal principles. It became more right wing as the Liberal politicians saw the need to establish uniformity and order following 1870, meaning that regional differences and opinions were suppressed rather than considered and listened to.

Answer 138

They were afraid of the weakness of the ruling classes in the south and the tendency towards violent peasant discontent. This moulded a political system that just ignored cracks in unity, attempts to impose uniform and sometimes unsuitable policies, and by restricting the political involvement of the population.

Answer 139

Liberal politicians - they were adept at creating coalitions and operating within the system of Trasformismo.

Answer 140

Because their dominance was increasingly threatened as they had not built up a mass base of support over their years in power - their priorities favoured a narrow interest group rather than the bulk of the voting population.

Answer 141

They wanted to avoid state intervention in the economy, triumphed "morality" over scandal and denounced what they saw as the corruption of the Liberal state. Leader was Felice Cavallotti. They wanted significant changes in the three key institutions of Italy - the monarchy, the administration and the army. They called for position of deputy to be paid, compulsory and free primary education, social legislation to establish pensions and more.

Answer 142

Shared very similar policies are the Radicals, but less prepared to work with Liberal governments and were more focused on reducing the powers of the Crown than the other priorities.

Answer 143

Because of their credible programme and base in the modern and industrialised north of Italy.

Answer 144

An economic struggle by organised workers to win immediate advantages. It aimed to address the concerns of ordinary working people and had MASS appeal.

Answer 145

Along the lines of modern political parties, with individual membership, local networks, rules and procedures, party cards and congresses (national meetings).

Answer 146

Avanti! which helped to publicise and unify the party

Answer 147

200,000 votes, holding 32 seats

Answer 148

Votes for all men, an eight-hour working day, women's rights

Answer 149

Land was seized from the Pope - the Papal States. Pope Pius IX shut himself off away in the Vatican as protest against this reduction in papal power and forbade Catholics from taking part in elections. This led most practising Catholic politicians to withdraw from political life in protest, paving the way for the Liberals to maintain control for nearly 50 years.

Answer 150

Aimed to repair the relationship between Church and State, which was helped by Pope Pius IX's desire to defeat the threat of socialism, which the Church regarded as godless and destructive.

Answer 151

Allied with the Liberals under the Pope's order. This helped the Liberals massively in the 1913 elections, however, there was still ongoing arguments between the Liberals about education and charity.

Answer 152

Aggressive, expansionist, anti-parliamentary and exclusive, mostly as a response to the growth of socialism and disillusionment with the Liberal government of Giolitti. Spoke for businessmen and producers rather than the workers.

Answer 153

Urban lower-middle-class men, often small business owners, who rejected the liberal values of parliamentary democracy and were disillusioned former supporters of other groups.

Answer 154

Still developing. There was significant industrial growth but this was limited to certain areas of northern Italy.

Answer 155

Italy's agriculture development. This led to increased grain yields but also added to the number of vulnerable and discontented landless labourers.

Answer 156

It had changed significantly BUT was still far behind countries like Germany and Britain. Although steps had been taken to improve the economic lives of the Italian people, many did not feel the difference, leading to INCREASED POLITICAL DISSENT and SUPPORT FOR RADICAL PARTIES in the years to come.

Answer 157

Limited in geographical scope and size. While the development was impressive, it started from a very low base, so Italy's industrial economy was always far behind that of its European rivals. Industry was generally restricted to the north of Italy, despite some pockets of development in Naples, Veneto, Tuscany and Sicily. Even within the north, industrialisation was uneven and localised.

Answer 158

The north-west because it had good transport links, accessible markets, an existing industrial tradition and appropriate power sources e.g hydro-electric power.

Answer 159

* Lack of key resources e.g iron, steel and coal meant Italy was forced to import them. * Labour force was large but also unskilled. * Industrial machinery had to be imported from abroad. * Communications, transport and energy sources all underdeveloped in most areas.

Answer 160

In the years 1899-1910, where industrial production doubled. Exports increased at a rate of 4.5% a year.

Answer 161

* Technological advancements. * Greater financial investment by the state, including the provision of subsidies to key industries e.g shipbuilding. * An increase in agricultural productivity. * Negotiations with workers to improve the wages and conditions.

Answer 162

A liberal economist, Francesco Saverio Nitti introduced reforms. He believed the process of unification had actually stunted the economic development of the south and thought that state intervention was necessary to get it back on track.

Answer 163

1904: Law to stimulate industrial growth in Naples 1904 and 1906: Law on Basilicata (1904) a d Calabria (19060 to allow reconstruction of forests 1910: Laws to extend and consolidate state forestry 1911: Laws for the reclamation of forest basins

Answer 164

After 1900, the Italian government attempted to unite Italy economically by ending internal tariffs and a single Italian economic market which supported free trade. Unfortunately this damaged industry in the southern parts of Italy and the gap between the north an south only increased, as the southern Italian elite largely consisted of landowners wanted to protect or increase their privileges.

Answer 165

The Italian economy was largely agrarian

Answer 166

68% of the population

Answer 167

* Experienced dramatic changes within agriculture. * Production levels of key crops e.g wheat increased. * Particular progress made in Po Valley, a rich and fertile region. * Improvements in mechanisation and fertilisers made farming more profitable and efficient. * Farms in north had more irrigation and drainage systems, so less land wasted or liable to flooding. * Consequently subsistence farming disappeared in north during this period. * Development of larger farms - which embraced capitalism.

Answer 168

More social division between rural areas of northern Italy. Growing numbers of landless agricultural labourers caused society to become less stable and increased political agitation.

Answer 169

Produced goods that were not so high value, operated in a less commercial way, disease, and open to more agricultural problems (deforestation) and natural disasters e.g earthquakes in Calabria in 1905.

Answer 170

Financial support for the area was essential but was extremely slow from the government, leading to the south despising the government even more, believing they were favouring the North more. This was exacerbated by the employment of northern contractors in the rebuilding.

Answer 171

Increase in landless labourers employed by wealthier farmers on a day by day basis meant more people were vulnerable to extreme poverty.

Answer 172

Diseases e.g typhus, rickets, pellagra and cholera, malaria, TB. Cramped and unsanitary living conditions exacerbated this and contained water and poor nutrition.

Answer 173

69% Illiteracy was greater in the countryside and more women were illiterate than men because of attitudes towards gender roles.

Answer 174

- 80% of the southern population illiterate - 42% of the population in Piedmont (north) were illiterate

Answer 175

In Piedmont (north) there were 26 schools for every 10,000 inhabitants, whereas in Sicily (south) there were only 6 schools for the same number of people.

Answer 176

Giolitt's government introduced: * Sickness, accident and pension schemes * Raising minimum working age to 12 years * Setting maximum working hours * Responsibility for primary schooling passed from municipal councils to central govt * Food taxes reduced to make food more affordable * Laws passed to enforce public holidays and provide free treatment for malaria

Answer 177

Hospitals improved in this period and developments in medicine meant that the number of people cured in hospitals increased by 50%. Also improvements in life expectancy and reduced infant mortality.

Answer 178

1861 = 30 years old 1914 = 47 years old

Answer 179

As people in other European countries - so good thing

Answer 180

37.6%, although the south still showed disproportionately higher levels.

Answer 181

Their labour was more important to them and education in terms of immediate survival.

Answer 182

Wanted to be seen as a modern state, comparable with other "great powers" within Europe.

Answer 183

Increased by 400,000 as thousands moved from the countryside into the town to take advantage of the new industrial jobs on offer. However, this was largely limited to the industrial cities of Milan, Turin and Genoa.

Answer 184

It was not the large-scale factory production witnessed in other industrial revolutions, and the south of Italy again remained largely isolated from such developments.

Answer 185

5 million Italians, with around 1.5 million people leaving Italy in 1912-13 alone. Most of these people came from the south of Italy.

Answer 186

The loss of such a large number of emigrants was viewed as a disaster by many Italians, given that their skills could have been used to further strengthen the economy.

Answer 187

Britain France Germany After all, Italy was unified before Germany and had assisted in the wars of the nineteenth century alongside the others.

Answer 188

To gain equal status and prestige with the other powers. It was hoped that this would also bring greater national identity and unity.

Answer 189

Colonies overseas. It was one way to achieve identity and unity as well as to improve the economy through access to raw materials and new commercial markets.

Answer 190

Italy's defeat to Abyssinian forces at the Battle of Adwa in 1896. It was a humiliation that temporarily halted Italy's colonial ambitions. It had to accept Abyssinia's independence and pay 10 million lire in war reparations.

Answer 191

Italian nationalists - they had become more vocal and felt that Liberal governments had failed to make Italy a major power. The ANI fervently supported imperialism as a way to achieve Italian glory.

Answer 192

3 million to 8.5 million

Answer 193

By constructing aqueducts and issuing tax incentives and loans, but the south always felt left behind.

Answer 194

* Saw Giolitti as weak and corrupt * Educated middle class support * Ban on public sector strikes * Formed in 1910 * Most opposed to G's policies * Wanted colonial expansion and irredente lands - Trentino and Trieste from Austria. * Angry about Italy's defeat at Adowa * Opposed socialists Giolitti lost total support of the ANI over Libya. They say he mismanaged the war.

Answer 195

* Had 79 deputies by 1913 * Massive growth in popularity * Offshoot of socialists known as Maximalists did not want to work with Liberals. They wanted violent revolution. * Formed in 1892 * Leader was Filippo Turati * Many believed that only socialism could solve Italy's problems. * War destroyed Giolitti's cooperation with the PSI and maximalists took control of the PSI. Gained 20% of vote in 1913.

Answer 196

* Co-operated with the Liberals at a local level. * 1913 Pope swung his support in favour of Giolitti. * Catholics and ANI form a brief alliance which weakened the PSI. * G was now reliant on catholic support after the extension of the franchise.

Answer 197

* Won over moderate socialists with some social reform such as state subsidised sickness BUT never won over maximalists. * G announced that the Church and State were two parallel lines that should never meet. Unable to solve the Roman question BUT he did offer concessions to the Church to gain Catholic support. * Giolitti invaded Libya partly to win over the ANI. Never really gained their support though as G compromised too much with the PSI.

Answer 198

The Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy)

Answer 199

The Austrian government had not consulted the Italians before declaring war on Serbia.

Answer 200

That she would remain neutral despite the calls from the Nationalists for Italy to honour her commitments.

Answer 201

Would put too great a strain on the Italian economy

Answer 202

Much of the Italian population was at best uninterested in entering the war on either side.

Answer 203

It split the Liberals in parliament and set off a political crisis.

Answer 204

He argued Italy SHOULD join the war, fearing that if Germany won they would not be sympathetic to an ally who failed to come to their side at this critical time. However, in the event of a victory for the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia), Italy would not see any of her ambitions in the Mediterranean realised. He also thought joining the war would give him the opportunity to introduce repressive legislation.

Answer 205

Interventionist

Answer 206

* Feared that if Germany won, they wouldn't be sympathetic to an ally who failed to come to their side at this critical time. * Joining would give Salandra the opportunity to introduce repressive legislation that would offer an authoritarian solution to Italy's problems. * With an Italian victory, Salandra and his methods would not be challenged.

Answer 207

By 1911, Catholics were part of governing coalitions in cities such as Turin and Venice.

Answer 208

The divided nature of Italian politics and the subsequent failure of Trasformismo. The ANI, PSI and Catholics all had such differing views which, combined with an unwillingness to compromise, led to a situation where Giolitti's policy of Trasformismo was unworkable. The Libyan war simply bought these issues into focus and the extension of the franchise simply exacerbated the lack of political consensus, thus showing the war was not the most signifiant issue. Could argue that until the Libyan war, political difficulties were solvable. It was after the Libyan war and subsequent extension of the franchise that Trasformismo became unworkable.

Answer 209

Salandra and Sidney Sonnino, the foreign minister, began secret discussions with Britain, France, Germany and Austria.

Answer 210

The Entente offered the best deal - offering much of the irredente lands to Italy.

Answer 211

26th April 1915

Answer 212

Italy signed the Treaty of London, pledging to support Britain, France and Russia.

Answer 213

Britain, France and Russia

Answer 214

A secret treaty between neutral Italy and the Allied forces of France, Britain, and Russia to bring Italy into World War I. The Allies wanted Italy's participation because of its border with Austria.

Answer 215

It caused serious unrest in Italy. The negotiations had been conducted in complete secrecy and not even the army general staff had been informed. The PSI, the Catholic Party and the Pope were all against intervention.

Answer 216

The PSI, the Catholic Party and the Pope were all against intervention. The prefects - local government representatives - reported there was no appetite for war outside the major cities.

Answer 217

Giolitti and 300 deputies announced their opposition to the Treaty of London, leaving Parliament totally divided.

Answer 218

There was serious unrest in Italy, with lots of people against intervention. Salandra resigned and the King asked Giolitti to form a new ministry. However, if Italy did not honour the Treaty of London it would have betrayed both sides and, more importantly, the King informed Giolitti that he would abdicate if the Treaty was not honoured, which would trigger a crisis in Italy. In this context, Giolitti refused the Kings offer and Salandra was reinstated as PM on 16th May 1915. On 25th May, Italy officially declared war on Austria.

Answer 219

25th May 1915

Answer 220

The foreign and domestic realities forced Italy into war - not because of pressure from interventionists.

Answer 221

* Triple Entente offered them the best deal - land. * Want irredente lands back. * Salandra wanted to introduce repressive laws - joining war would give excuse to use emergency powers. * Some pressure from nationalists, press and military.

Answer 222

* Political tensions over Trasformismo. * Economic problems - industrialisation uneven and localised. Tensions existed BETWEEN: * Nationalists - socialists * Within liberals - interventionists vs neutralist politicians * peasants vs elites * politicians/state vs the public * Regions * The educated and the illiterate

Answer 223

The Nationalists were happy. They had been consistently supporting intervention in war. However, not everyone supported war, leading to political tension. The Catholics wanted war, but not with Austria. The Socialists don't support war.

Answer 224

* Conditions were horrific and thousands of Italians were killed by cholera and frostbite. * Italians conscripts treated poorly by commanders. * Harsh punishments used by Luigi Cadorna. * Humiliating defeat at the Battle of Caporetto. * Resentment and unrest among the industrial workers in the north.

Answer 225

* Salandra criticised after the Strafexpedition and was forced to resign in 1916. * PSI continued to oppose war. * The defeat at Caporetto reignited the divisions that had surfaced during the intervention crisis. * War spending would bring about inevitable inflation and massive cuts to government spending.

Answer 226

* Italy's economic growth during the war was based on government investment in war production. * Italy's economy had become unbalanced with a few war-based sectors growing at a much faster rate than other industries. The north and south divide increased.

Answer 227

* The young and dynamic Vittorio Orlando became PM in October 1917 (after Boselli) * New commander General Diaz reorganised the army and was a more cautious commander - casualty rates decreased. * Rations for soldiers was raised and increased annual leave. * In December 1917, organisation was created to look after the welfare of soldiers and their families. * Lots of industrial success.

Answer 228

A brief, offensive war that would bring Italy almost immediate territorial gains. Instead, the war between Austria and Italy was fought predominantly in the mountainous area bordering the two countries and was characterised by mainly STATIC trench warfare in the ice and snow of the difficult alpine terrain.

Answer 229

Conditions were horrific and thousands of Italian soldiers were killed by cholera and frostbite.

Answer 230

Two years of stalemate followed Italy's declaration of war and thousands of soldiers were often sacrificed in order to move a few hundred metres. In 1915, 62,000 Italians died during four attempted offensives against the Austrians that failed to change the situation at the front.

Answer 231

62,000 Italians died

Answer 232

Nearly five million men, with the majority being peasants or agricultural landowners. Southern peasant conscripts were overrepresented and the ideals of the war concerning Italian expansion meant little to them.

Answer 233

The majority of peasant conscript, who spoke a vast range of dialects, could not understand the orders being given to them by those in charge, who were predominantly educated northern Italians, who mainly spoke the official Italian language.

Answer 234

Treated poorly by their commanders and rations were extremely low.

Answer 235

They could not comprehend why was the war was being fought or why Italy had joined; around 290,000 Italian soldiers were court martially during the war for desertion.

Answer 236

Luigi Cadorna

Answer 237

To use harsh punishments. Military tribunals passed 4,000 death sentences on Italian soldiers for desertion and indiscipline (more per capita then any other Western army).

Answer 238

4,000 death sentences

Answer 239

Leaders feared that if soldiers heard that conditions in prisoner of war camps were tolerable they might be inclined to surrender. Therefore, the government hampered any attempts to help Italian prisoners; 600,000 who had been captured were left to survive on 1,000 calories a day. 100,000 died of hunger related illnesses (5 times the number from France or Britain, who were allowed to receive food parcels from home). Those who survived the camps came out with a strong feeling of abandonment and considerable anger towards a government they felt had betrayed them.

Answer 240

In 1916, the Austrian army launched the Strafexpedition, a major offensive in the Trentine salient, in order to open a path that would allow it to attack Verona and Bologna. Although the Italian army was able to regroup and halt the Austrian attack, it had a severe impact on army and public morale. Salandra was criticised by both military command and parliament, and was forced to resign.

Answer 241

24th October 1917

Answer 242

On 24th October 1917, Italy suffered a humiliating defeat by the Austro-Hungarian forces at the Battle of Caporetto. When Austrian forces attacked the Italian frontline, poor leadership and low morale saw that Italian army dissolve and a chaotic retreat took place. Italian soldiers streamed down the mountains, many without weapons, and there were reports of looting and violence between Italian troops. Some Italian troops even celebrate because they fought the war was finally over. It was a devastating defeat for the Italians.

Answer 243

* 700,000 Italians retreated 150km back and held the line at the River Piave. * 300,000 Italian prisoners of war were captured by Austrians. * 10,000 Italian soldiers killed and 30,000 wounded * 400,000 soldiers simply vanished, in most cases using the chaos to head back to their homes in Italy. * Cadorna, who was army Commander of Chief, blamed this mass defeat on the cowardice of his troops and executed several thousand as a result. * The nationalists blamed the Liberal government for this, while the government blamed Cadorna who was REMOVED from his position.

Answer 244

Large quantities of military arms were lost, as was the majority of the Veneto region. 200,000 soldiers lost contact with their regiments.

Answer 245

Because only months before, leaders had been claiming that the war had finally brought about patriotic unity.

Answer 246

An Italian senator, Leopoldo Franchetti, who was so overwhelmed by the nature of defeat. Political repercussions.

Answer 247

While the initial Austrian victory had been due to tactical reasons, the nature of the retreat afterwards was accentuated by poor morale.

Answer 248

Overall, the Italian army did not collapse, nor did the defeat at Caporetto bring about revolution or the collapse of the state.

Answer 249

The defeat at Caporetto reignited the divisions that had surfaced during the intervention crisis of 1914-15. The majority of Italy's parliament still backed Giolitti and were not completely behind the war. These "neutralist" politicians were blamed for Italy's poor military performance, and many nationalists called for a revolution to get rid of them. Some even called for Giolitti and other neutralists to be put on trial for treason.

Answer 250

General Diaz

Answer 251

Vittorio Orlando - who was young and dynamic.

Answer 252

* The army was reorganised under Diaz. * Rations for soldiers were raised and annual leave increased. * There was a greater focus on boosting soldier's moral through lectures and trench newspapers. * Promises of land reform were made to peasant conscripts. * December 1917 - an organisation was created to look after the welfare of solders and their families.

Answer 253

He was a much more cautious commander than Cadorna, focused on holding the Italian line on the Piave River and avoiding the needless sacrifice of soldiers in suicidal offensive.

Answer 254

Casualty rates fell considerably, from 520,000 in 1917 to 143,000 in 1918.

Answer 255

Oppose the war, declaring a policy of "neither support nor sabotage" to the war effort. Its stance was despised by the nationalists, who saw it as defeatist, unpatriotic and un-Italian, blaming it for the poor performance of Italy's military.

Answer 256

They were arrested and imprisoned, accused of "stabbing Italy in the back". The PSI's position on the war meant there was even greater polarisation between left and right in Italian politics.

Answer 257

He blamed Italian socialists, asserting that they were a more dangerous enemy than the Austrians and calling for a more forceful Italian leader who would help create a united country.

Answer 258

Italy was behind Austria in nearly all economic areas crucial for the war. Italy produced 1 million tonnes of steel, the Austrians 2.6 million; for every 2 machine guns per Italian battalion, the Austrians had 12. However, over the course of the war, Italy made significant economic improvements.

Answer 259

* Fiat established itself as Europe's leading truck and lorry manufacturer, producing 25,000 vehicles in 1918 alone. * Italy's aeronautical industry produced 6,500 planes in 1918. * By the end of the war, Italian industry had produced around 20,000 machine guns and 7,000 pieces of heavy artillery (a greater amount than the British).

Answer 260

Around 20,000 machine guns and 7,000 pieces of heavy artillery (a greater amount than the British).

Answer 261

The under-secretariat of arms and munitions, Alfredo Dallolio. He organised the recruitment of peasants and women into factories (a quarter of munitions factory employees were women). - Hours of work were increased, strikes made illegal and workers would face military tribunals if their behaviour was deemed unsatisfactory.

Answer 262

From 6,000 to 30,000

Answer 263

For the industrialists, as they were backed up by the government.

Answer 264

This growth was based almost entirely on government investment in war production, which had been paid for by foreign loans and printing more money. While the war continued, these issues could be ignored, but the end of the war would bring about inevitable inflation and massive cuts to government spending.

Answer 265

23 billion lire in debt (it had been 2.9 billion in debt before the war).

Answer 266

The war economy accentuated one of Italy's most troubling issues - the north/south divide. The majority of war production was based in the north east, and so the growth of industry in these areas accelerated the division between north and south. The south remained a predominantly impoverished agricultural society, while the north's economy grew by over 20% between 1911 and 1921. As a result, the South became increasingly bitter that it was being ignored and left behind as the north progressed.

Answer 267

A few war-based sectors were growing at a much faster rate than other industries. The majority of war production was based in the north-east, accelerating the division between the north and south.

Answer 268

Workers were angry that they had to work long hours and were experiencing a fall in real wages of around 25%, while industrialists were making vast profits. This was made worse by the fact that most workers did not support the war.

Answer 269

The government increased indirect taxes to pay for the war effort, and this in turn led to greater social division, as the poorer in society felt these affected them more than the rich.

Answer 270

Bread and pasta

Answer 271

Meat and sugar consumption was falling sharply.

Answer 272

50 workers were killed protesting in Turin against bread shortages and the continuation of the war. The riots shocked politicians who made steps to increase food supplies and pro-war propaganda.

Answer 273

The shift in military tactics combined with the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire due to events elsewhere.

Answer 274

To attack, believing that an Italian victory would help strengthen its position in the negotiations that would come after the war.

Answer 275

Italian forces finally launched an offensive across the the Piave, entering the town of Vittorio Veneto and splitting the Austrian army in two. Austria signed an armistice on the 4th November 1918.

Answer 276

4th November 1918

Answer 277

The decisive Italian victory and the final offensive launched on the Italian Front during World War I.

Answer 278

The greatest moment of the Italian nation.

Answer 279

As demonstrating the glory of Italy, achieved through patriotism, unity and self sacrifice.

Answer 280

He proclaimed the victory as representing the patriotism and self-sacrifice he had hoped the war would bring about.

Answer 281

* Many Italians believed the war would bring about political change. * 650,000 casualties * Economy even more greatly distorted between the north and south * Debt and inflation * Division between those who backed the war and those who didn't * Division between those who fought and those who didn't * Gouvernement had made promises to peasants and not fulfilled them * Retiring soldiers wanted compensation for their sacrifices

Answer 282

Only half that of France's

Answer 283

A constitutional monarchy

Answer 284

* The territorial gains they hoped for only party materialised. * The war had left Italy with social and political problems.

Answer 285

- When the July Crisis erupted, Italy was allied to its neighbour Austria-Hungary, but most Italians had little interest in fighting for it. - On 3rd August 1914 Italy declared its neutrality with the support of most of the population. - However, the prospect of joining the war on the other side was soon raised, and both the Entente and the Central Powers began to court the Italian government in hope of securing its allegiance. - Irredentism motivated some interventionists, while others adopted pragmatic positions or embraced the rhetoric of a war for democracy; some placed the war in a wider imperial context right from the start, hoping to acquire as yet undefined territories beyond national borders

Answer 286

Committing to join the Entente in pursuit of expansionist aims: it hoped both to complete national unification and to receive territorial compensation elsewhere.

Answer 287

3rd August 1914

Answer 288

The feeling of injustice coined by the nationalist writer Gabriele D’Annunzio, which referred to Italians’ unconformity with the repartition of the territory set by the Paris Peace Conference after the WWI.

Answer 289

The concept was then extensively used in Mussolini’s discourses which continued to strengthen Italian nationalism and irredentist rhetoric, becoming a key point in Italian Fascist propaganda.

Answer 290

- Huge sums of money had been borrowed from Britain and the USA and Italy was 85 BILLION LIRE in debt by 1919. - The government however still had to print money to pay for the war effort which led to inflation. - Prices quadrupled and inflation destroyed savings. - The purchasing power of wages of factory workers also fell by about 25%. - Although large industrialists had done well out of war production, once the war ended there was no longer any need for quantities of rifles, trucks and artillery and industrial profits therefore also declined.

Answer 291

85 billion lire

Answer 292

Prices quadrupled

Answer 293

Although large industrialists had done well out of war production, once the war ended there was no longer any need for quantities of rifles, trucks and artillery and industrial profits therefore also declined.

Answer 294

- Industrial disputes increased as workers resented long hours and a fall in wages. - During 1919, over a million workers took part in strikes and membership of socialist trade unions shot up to 2 million by 1920. - Unemployment was largely made up of returning soldiers with no jobs to go to and had risen to 2 million by 1919. - Greater division between north and south. - High number of casualties - anger and grief.

Answer 295

Industrial disputes

Answer 296

Over a million workers

Answer 297

2 million - largely made up of returning soldiers.

Answer 298

- As the economy worsened, political divisions widened. - Industrial workers flocked to the PSI whose membership rose from 50,000 in 1914 to about 200,000 by 1919. - Inspired by the Russian Revolution of 1917, the PSI were now calling for social revolution and the overthrow of the Liberal state. - By November 1919, the PSI had won 156 seats - this was now the single largest party in Italian parliament. This terrified many middle-class Italians who were disgusted that the Liberals appeared to be doing nothing about the socialist threat. - Riots over spiralling bread prices occurred and shop keepers feared the government were doing nothing. - In the countryside, peasants were occupying unfarmed land and claiming it for themselves and joining socialist trade unions. Landowners began to worry and blamed the government for doing nothing. - Italy's treatment at the Paris conference - Orlando had to resign over mutilated victory - Occupation of Fiume saw Liberals as weak

Answer 299

Industrial workers

Answer 300

50,000 in 1914 to about 200,000 by 1919.

Answer 301

Social revolution and the overthrow of the Liberal state.

Answer 302

156 seats - this was now the single largest party in Italian parliament. This terrified many middle-class Italians who were disgusted that the Liberals appeared to be doing nothing about the socialist threat.

Answer 303

There were riots over spiralling bread prices - shop keepers feared the government were doing nothing.

Answer 304

Peasants were occupying unfarmed land and claiming it for themselves and joining socialist trade unions. Landowners began to worry and blamed the government for doing nothing.

Answer 305

Italy's treatment at the Paris Peace Conference at Versailles in January 1919.

Answer 306

January 1919

Answer 307

Orlando, the new Prime Minister, argued Italy should be given all the territory they had been promised in the 1915 Treaty of London (southern Tyrol, Trentino, Istria and parts of Dalmatia) plus the port of Fiume on the Croatian Coast. Woodrow Wilson, David Lloyd George and Georges Clemenceau did not see Italy as deserving "great power" status. As a result Italy's claim for Fiume and much of the Treaty were rejected as Italy contributions to the war were limited.

Answer 308

Southern Tyrol, Trentino, Istria and parts of Dalmatia

Answer 309

- Italy could've stayed neutral, but didn't. Helped Britain, France and America. - Needed territorial expansion to justify war effort to the population and avoid mass protest, anarchy and revolution. - Claimed he faced assassination if he could not secure Dalmatia. - Foreign minister, Sonnino feared failure would lead to anarchy, as violent clashes were already taking place. - "I must have a solution. Otherwise I will have a crisis in parliament or in the street of Italy." to David Lloyd George.

Answer 310

Orlando walked out of the peace conference which meant Italy gained very little in the final treaty as there was no one to represent their interests. As a result Orlando was forced to resign in June. Trent, Trieste and Northern Dalmatia were gained from the Conference but the result was described as a "mutilated victory" by poet and novelist Gabriele D'Annunzio. IT DEMONSTRATED THE WEAKNESS OF THE LIBERALS GOVERNMENT, ITS LACK OF GREAT POWER STATUS AND THAT 65,000 ITALIAN SOLDIERS HAD DIED FOR NOTHING.

Answer 311

- Would condemn it, annoyed that Italy won't receive irredente lands. - Wants to get more involved in politics and accumulate support.

Answer 312

Against the backdrop of economic problems and political turmoil, nationalist right-wing groups challenged the government in Rome. Anger at the inadequacies of Liberal Italy, people spoke of establishing a powerful government that would assert Italy's greatness.

Answer 313

Because of its 50% Italian speaking population.

Answer 314

That it should remain part of the newly created nation of Yugoslavia.

Answer 315

12th September 1919

Answer 316

Gabriele D'Annunzio took 2,000 men made up of ex-soldiers, futurists, students and patriots and seized the contested port of Fiume.

Answer 317

For many Italians, Fiume was the greatest example of Italy's humiliating treatment at the Versailles conference. D'Annunzio presented the occupation as redemption for Italy's dead soldiers.

Answer 318

Scared of D'Annunzio's popularity, the government failed to act for 15 months and only removed the occupying force on Christmas Day 1920.

Answer 319

- frailties of the Italian govt. - success could be achieved through violent and decisive action. - Treaty of Versailles could be changed if Italy simply took what was rightfully theirs (therefore Liberal Italy had been weak to accept it, needed a stronger government) - power and popularity of assertive nationalism.