The Liberal State, c1911–18

Question 1

What does liberalism mean? (in the 20th century)

Answer 1

A viewpoint or ideology associated with free political institutions and religious toleration, as well as support for a strong role of government in regulating capitalism and constructing the welfare state.

Question 2

Examples of unsuccessful events/policies from 1896 that shows Italy as divided

Answer 2

𝟭𝟴𝟵𝟲 - Italy defeated by Abyssinian forces at the Battle of Adwa.
𝟭𝟴𝟵𝟲 - Around 2% of the Italian population spoke Italian.
𝗠𝗮𝘆 𝟭𝟴𝟵𝟴 - Protests against Italy’s undemocratic and corrupt political system and economic turmoil leads to 100 killed in Milan.
𝗝𝘂𝗹𝘆 𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟬 - King Umburto I assassinated.
𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟬 - The government ended internal tariffs to support free trade (but this actually damaged southern Italy).
𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟬-𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟭 - There were 9 governments.
𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟭-𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟭 - There were over 1,500 strikes in Italy.
𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟭-𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟯 - 200,000 Italians left southern Italy each year, in part because of the extreme poverty
𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟯-𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟭 - Giolitti became Prime Minister on 3 separate occasions.
𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟬 - Italian Nationalist Party formed, supporting Imperialism as a way to achieve Italian glory through violence and war.
𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟬 - eruption of Mount Vesuvius had a damaging effect on the southern economy.
𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟬/𝟭𝟭 - 25,000 people died in Naples (southern Italy) of cholera, and half the population were illiterate in that area.

Question 3

When was Italy defeated by Abyssinian forces at the Battle of Adwa?

Answer 3

1896

Question 4

When did only 2% of the Italian population speak Italian?

Answer 4

1896

Question 5

When were there protests against Italy’s undemocratic and corrupt political system and economic turmoil, leading to 100 killed in Milan?

Answer 5

May 1898

Question 6

When was King Umburto I assassinated?

Answer 6

July 1900

Question 7

When did the government end internal tariffs to support free trade? (actually damaging southern Italy)

Answer 7

1900

Question 8

In what period were there 9 governments?

Answer 8

1900-1911

Question 9

In what period were there 1,500 strikes in Italy?

Answer 9

1901-1911

Question 10

In what period did 200,000 Italians leave Southern Italy each year? (in part because of the extreme poverty)

Answer 10

1901-1913

Question 11

In what time period did Giolitti become PM on 3 different occasions?

Answer 11

1903-1911

Question 12

When was the Italian Nationalist Party formed?

Answer 12

1910

Question 13

When was the eruption of Mount Vesuvius that damaged the southern economy?

Answer 13

1910

Question 14

When did 25,000 people die in Naples due to cholera?

Answer 14

1910/11

Question 15

In 1896, how much of the Italian population spoke Italian?

Answer 15

Only 2%

Question 16

What happened in May 1898?

Answer 16

Protests against Italy’s undemocratic and corrupt political system and economic turmoil led to 100 killed in Milan.

Question 17

In 1900, what did the government do?

Answer 17

Ended internal tariffs to support free trade (but this actually damaged southern Italy).

Question 18

How many governments were there between 1900-11?

Answer 18

9 governments

Question 19

How many strikes were there in Italy from 1901-1911?

Answer 19

Over 1,500

Question 20

From 1901-1913, how many Italians left southern Italy each year, in part because of the extreme poverty?

Answer 20

200,000 Italians

Question 21

How many separate occasions did Giolitti become Prime Minister on between 1903-1911?

Answer 21

3 separate occasions

Question 22

What did the Italian Nationalist party support?

Answer 22

Imperialism as a way to achieve Italian glory through violence and war.

Question 23

In 1910/11, how many people died in Naples (southern Italy) of cholera?

Answer 23

25,000

Question 24

Describe Italy from 1896-1911

Answer 24

Politically unstable and divided, but modernising

Question 25

Examples of successes from 1896 for the Liberal government and the Italian people

Answer 25

𝟭𝟴𝟵𝟵-𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟬 - Industrial production doubled
𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟬 - radicals and republicans won only 34 and 28 seats respectively (good for Liberal govt) although they were still considered a threat because of their base in the north of Italy.
𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟬-𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟳 - government expenditure doubled on public works.
𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟰 - Giolitti refused to crush general strike in northern Italy which actually fell apart after a few days because of a lack of organisation (good for Liberal govt)
𝟭𝟵𝟬𝟰 - Nitti introduced a law to stimulate industrial growth in Naples.
𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟭 - Literacy rates had improved (37.6% illiteracy as opposed to 69% in 1870)
𝟭𝟵𝟭𝟮 - Universal manhood suffrage was introduced.

Question 26

In what time period did industrial production double?

Answer 26

1899-1910

Question 27

When did radicals and republicans won only 34 and 28 seats respectively? (good for Liberal govt)

Answer 27

1900

Question 28

When did a general strike in northern Italy fall apart after a lack of organisation?

Answer 28

1904

Question 29

When did a general strike in northern Italy fall apart after a lack of organisation?

Answer 29

1904

Question 30

When did Nitti introduce a law to stimulate industrial growth in Naples?

Answer 30

1904

Question 31

By what time had literacy rates improved, from 69% illiteracy in 1870 to only 37.6% illiteracy?

Answer 31

1911

Question 32

When was universal manhood suffrage introduced?

Answer 32

1912

Question 33

From 1899-1910, what happened to industrial production?

Answer 33

It doubled

Question 34

What happened in 1900 with radicals and republicans and why were they still a threat?

Answer 34

Radicals and republicans won only 34 and 28 seats respectively (good for Liberal govt) although they were still considered a threat because of their base in the north of Italy.

Question 35

What happened to government expenditure from 1900-1907?

Answer 35

Government expenditure doubled on public works.

Question 36

In 1904, what happened to a general strike in northern Italy?

Answer 36

It fell apart, due to a lack of organisation.

Question 37

What did Nitti introduce in 1904?

Answer 37

A law to stimulate industrial growth in Naples.

Question 38

What happened in 1905?

Answer 38

Tommaso Tittoni became PM for one month

Question 39

In 1911, how had literacy rates improved?

Answer 39

37.6% illiteracy as opposed to 69% in 1870

Question 40

What happened in 1912 regarding suffrage?

Answer 40

Universal manhood suffrage was introduced

Question 41

How many of Italy’s 2.2 million industrial workers were employed in the northern provinces of Lombardy, Liguria, Piedmont/Milan Genoa and Turin?

Answer 41

Half of Italy’s 2.2 million industrial workers. They accounted for 55% of industrial income.

Question 42

Overall, what was Italy like by 1911?

Answer 42

In the early 20th century, Italy was a slowly modernising country, but one that had deep, geographical and economic divisions. The economy was not as industrialised as other European powers and southern Italy remained largely agricultural and poor.

Any reforms that were implemented by the Liberal government were unable to effectively heal division within Italian society. As a result, many people migrated to countries such as America, looking for a better way of life.

The Italian political system was weak as well, particularly the system of Trasformismo, which newer political parties were able to exploit at the expense of the Liberals.

Despite all its weaknesses and division, Italy still appeared to be a great colonial power, however by 1911 this looked increasingly unlikely.

Question 43

What was Trasformismo?

Answer 43

The method of making a flexible, centrist coalition government which isolated the extremes of the left/right-wing in Italian politics. Political dealings.

Question 44

Describe the Liberal Party 1896-1914

Answer 44

Not a structured party. They were, instead, a series of informal, personal groupings with no formal links to political constituencies.

Question 45

What was the Roman question?

Answer 45

Used to describe the split between the Italian state and the Catholic Church, which refused to recognise Italy as a state.

“A dispute regarding the temporal power of the popes as rulers of a civil territory in the context of the Italian Risorgimento”.

Question 46

Risorgimento

Answer 46

Unification of Italy as a new nation in 1870

Question 47

Irredentism

Answer 47

Movement that sought to bring under Italian rule various lands that were considered to be culturally, linguistically or historically Italian, but were not included in the unified Italian Kingdom of 1870.

Italy’s unification would only be complete if ALL Italian speaking lands were incorporated (e.g Trieste and Fiume)

Redemption of Italian territory.

Question 48

When was the Associazione Nazionalista Italiana (ANI) formed? - nationalists

Answer 48

1910

Question 49

What were the four different groups Giolitti had to deal with 1911-1914?

Answer 49

• Socialists (PSI)
• Nationalists (ANI)
• Catholics
• Radicals and republicans

Question 50

What happened when the ANI was formed in 1910?

Answer 50

Brought the Nationalists together under the leadership of Corradini. By 1914, it had huge support.

Question 51

Who was the leader of the ANI when it formed in 1910?

Answer 51

Corradini

Question 52

In the 1913 election, who won a quarter of all votes? How many deputies did they have in parliament?

Answer 52

The PSI and had 79 deputies in Parliament

(this was a lot of votes and was going to be a problem for the Liberal government)

Question 53

What did Socialism’s growth in popularity mirror?

Answer 53

Mirrored Italy’s industrialisation as the population of Italy’s northern cities expanded due to internal migration.

Question 54

How was cooperation between the Catholics and the Liberals most evident in 1911?

Answer 54

At a local level - Catholics were part of governing coalitions in Turin, Bologna, Florence and Venice. The Church also had considerable influence in the north of Italy.

Question 55

By 1911, how many of Italy’s 2.2 million industrial workers were employed in the northern provinces of Lombardy, Liguria and Piedmont?

Answer 55

HALF of Italy’s 2.2 million industrial workers - shows divisions between North and South.

Question 56

The South was far less modern. How much wealth did it account for?

Answer 56

The South accounted for only 27% of the wealth in Italy.

Question 57

Were the ANI willing to work with the Liberals?

Answer 57

NO.

The ANI were not willing to work with the Liberals, making them incredibly difficult to deal with. They were the party MOST opposed to Giolitti’s policies, favouring steady colonial expansion, a stronger army, a ban on public sector strikes and stronger police powers.

Question 58

What were the ANI’s beliefs?

Answer 58

• Favoured steady colonial expansion
• Favoured a strong army
• Wanted a ban on public sector strikes
• Wanted stronger police powers
• Wanted an AGGRESSIVE foreign policy to claim lands in Africa and claim irredente lands.

Question 59

Was Giolitti’s programme of placating the PSI (by offering moderate social reform) successful?

Answer 59

It was partly successful, particularly with moderates like Filippo Turati. But Giolitti found it increasingly hard to win over the entire PSI because the maximalists in the socialist party (one of whom was Mussolini) wanted to overthrow the state.

Question 60

Why did Giolitti find it difficult to win over the entire PSI party?

Answer 60

The maximalists in the socialist party (one of whom was Mussolini) wanted to overthrow the state.

Question 61

Giolitti’s invasion of Libya in 1911 was done primarily to…

Answer 61

neutralise the threat of the Nationalists.

Question 62

Why did the Nationalists become an increasingly influential political movement 1911-1914?

Answer 62

Because of the humiliating defeat for the Italians at Adwa and the shame of poverty of Italy meaning many Italians were emigrating for a better life.

Question 63

When was the PSI formed?

Answer 63

1892 - it was one of the few formal political parties

Question 64

What does PSI (Socialists) stand for?

Answer 64

The Partito Socialista Italiano

Question 65

What did Giolitti announce in 1904 about the Church?

Answer 65

Giolitti announced the Church and state were “two parallel lines, which should never meet”.

Question 66

Giolitti’s attempt to boost Italian support for his leadership through modernisation and economic reform failed to…

Answer 66

halt the rise of nationalism.

Question 67

What did the nationalists see Giolitti as?

Answer 67

Corrupt and weak

Question 68

1911-1914: Who was the leader of the PSI?

Answer 68

Filippo Turati

Question 69

From 1911-1914, what did exports increase by?

Answer 69

4.5%

Question 70

Intellectuals and politicians tried to understand the Questione Meridionale…

Answer 70

Why was the south so backward and poor?

Question 71

In the 1913 election, what did the Pope do?

Answer 71

Swung his support in favour of Giolitti

Question 72

What did Giolitti do with reforms?

Answer 72

Giolitti enacted a series of reforms to allow workers to strike and hold peaceful protests.

Question 73

By 1910, how many Catholic worker’s unions were there?

Answer 73

374

Question 74

By 1910, how many peasants did the Federation of Agricultural Workers represent?

Answer 74

240,000 peasants

This is good from Giolitti

Question 75

How did Giolitti try to deal with the Socialists?

Answer 75

Via trasformismo by offering a variety of social reforms like state-subsidised sickness and an old age fund for the merchant navy. Leading socialist Leonida Bissolati was even offered a place in Giolitti’s cabinet (but he declined).

Question 76

Who did the Nationalists have support from?

Answer 76

A number of educated middle class supporters who viewed it as a force for national renewal, which would undermine the increasing support for the socialists, destroy the corruption of the current system, and bring in new dynamic Italy.

Question 77

Although Giolitti wanted the support of the Church to help with his parliamentary majority, who was he more concerned with gaining the support of?

Answer 77

The Socialists

Question 78

How was Giolitti unable to reduce tension between the Church and state?

Answer 78

He was not willing to give the Pope any concessions on Roman territory and so was unable to solve the “Roman question” which still festered at the heart of tension between Church and state.

Question 79

What did many believe about Risorgimento?

Answer 79

That it had failed, and only Socialism could solve Italy’s problems of political corruption, persistent rural poverty and the widening gap between the ruling elite and working class.

Question 80

Between 1901 and 1911, how many strikes had there been?

Answer 80

1,500 strikes

Question 81

Between 1910 and 1911, how many people died from Cholera in Naples? (south)

Answer 81

25,000

Question 82

What did Giolitti do in order to improve literacy rates?

Answer 82

Placed responsibility for primary schooling on central government.

Question 83

What did many Italian Socialists believe?

Answer 83

That Giolitti’s reforms were aimed at avoiding instability rather than actually helping the poor.

Question 84

What did Giolitti implement to help improve the situation for Italy’s poor?

Answer 84

Policies, such as raising the minimum working age to 12 years and reducing food taxes to make food more affordable.

Question 85

What did Giolitti reduce to make food more affordable?

Answer 85

Food taxes

Question 86

1911-1914: What was Italy often seen as?

Answer 86

“the least of the Great Powers”

Question 87

What were the maximalists of the PSI?

Answer 87

A left-wing offshoot of the PSI that were more extreme. They despised the Liberal state and believed in violent revolution.

Question 88

What did Giolitti’s compromises with the PSI do?

Answer 88

Brought him into considerable conflict with the Catholic Church and the Nationalists as they opposed socialism.

Question 89

But by 1914, what was life expectancy and illiteracy like?

Answer 89

Italians had the same life expectancy as other Europeans and the national average for illiteracy was 37.6%.

Question 90

In 1912-13, how many Italians emigrated?(mostly from the south)

Answer 90

Around 1.5 million

Question 91

What was Giolitti’s most important concession to the socialists and when was this?

Answer 91

1906

When he brought in a new policy of non-intervention in labour disputes and courts to settle pay disputes.

Question 92

How was Giolitti, in a sense, the first PM to win the organised Catholic vote?

Answer 92

Giolitti did offer concessions to the Church in return for support e.g he promoted Catholic interests in education.

Question 93

L’ASINO: What did the magazine cover suggest about Giolitti as a politician and people’s attitudes towards him?

Answer 93

• Translates to the donkey - suggests he’s stupid
• He appeals to different people
• He’s not relatable
• He appeals more to the rich
• Changes to adapt - not genuine and two-faced
• He’s not trustworthy
• Tried to appeal to Catholics, socialists and nationalists. Might be clever, manipulating, expedient and corrupt.
• He was certainly a significant political force in 20th century Italy.

Question 94

Who was Italy allied with in the Triple Alliance? Why was this a problem?

Answer 94

Germany and Austria Hungary.

Created a difficult situation as Italy and Austria’s interests overlapped in the Balkans.

Question 95

Why did Italy invade Libya September 1911?

Answer 95

• In an attempt to create a more aggressive foreign policy and wanted to assert its dominance in North Africa to compete with France (imperialism).
• Pressure from the Nationalists.
• France was consolidating her control over Morocco and Giolitti was worried that France would invade Libya next which would be of considerable embarrassment to Italy, as Italians saw Libya as a country that should be part of their empire and under no circumstances should it be French.
• The Catholic Church also had considerable financial interests in Libya, causing them to encourage the government to invade.

For Giolitti therefore, invasion of Libya would be a way of uniting the Italian people behind his government by gaining support of both the Catholics and Nationalists.

Question 96

When Italy invaded Libya in 1911, who was Libya under control of at the time?

Answer 96

The Ottoman Empire

Question 97

When did Italy invade Libya?

Answer 97

29th September 1911

Question 98

How did people react to the invasion of Libya in September 1911?

Answer 98

It was greeted with an outpouring of national enthusiasm.

Question 99

Describe the initial successes of the Libyan campaign

Answer 99

• Met with an outpouring of national enthusiasm.
• Italy’s navy had seized all ports and coastal towns within three weeks.
• 70,000 troops were committed to the invasion.
• On the 8th October, Libya was formally handed over to the Italians by the Ottomans.

It appeared that Italy and Giolitti had won a great victory, especially as this was Italy’s first colony overseas. By 1912, it appeared that Giolitti’s programme of creating a unified Italy had been successful.

Question 100

Libya 1911: Within three weeks, what had Italy’s navy done?

Answer 100

Seized all ports and coastal towns

Question 101

Libya 1911: How many Italian troops were committed to the invasion?

Answer 101

70,000

Question 102

When did the Ottomans formally hand over Libya to Italy?

Answer 102

8th October (1911

Question 103

Libya 1911: Describe what was appearing by 1912

Answer 103

It appeared that Giolitt’s programme of created a unified Italy had been successful. His social reforms had pacified the PSI who were now prepared to support his government, and the Catholic Church was co-operating with the Liberals in several key areas .

Question 104

What did the victory in Libya initially seem to do for the government?

Answer 104

Seems to galvanise nationalistic support for the government.

Question 105

Overall, initially, what did the Libyan War do to relations between Catholics, PSI and ANI?

Answer 105

Pleases the Nationalists and Catholic Church. Not so much the PSI, he pacifies them instead.

Question 106

Libya 1911: However, how did relations with the Nationalists actually turn out?

Answer 106

The war did not actually help Giolitti absorb the Nationalists. Rather, it increased support for the ANI, who claimed credit for the policy and led to them demanding more from the Liberal government.

Question 106

Libya 1911: However, how did relations with the Nationalists actually turn out?

Answer 106

The war did not actually help Giolitti absorb the Nationalists.

Question 107

How were the ANI able to capitalise on dislike of Giolitti?

Answer 107

They claimed that his handling of the war was mismanaged and had led to a huge loss of life (3,500 Italians died)

Question 108

How many Italians died in the fighting of the Libyan War 1911?

Answer 108

3,500

Question 109

How much did the Libyan War cost Italy?

Answer 109

1,300 million lire

Question 110

How did the war destroy Giolitti’s cooperation with the PSI? (which had been key to his programme of Trasformismo)

Answer 110

The PSI argued that Italy’s wealth was being wasted on foreign campaigns.

Question 111

Libya 1911: Who ended up forming an alliance and why was this bad for the socialists and Liberal government?

Answer 111

The Catholics and the nationalists formed a temporary alliance which weakened the moderate socialists to the extent that the revolutionary wing of the party seized control, ruling out further cooperation with the Liberal government. Any moderate socialists were expelled from the party. Giolitti’s attempts to absorb the socialists into the liberal state had ended in failure.

Question 112

After the invasion of Libya, what did Giolitti realise he had to do?

Answer 112

Realises he needs to extend the franchise as support was high, people fought for your country etc. Thought by giving more people the vote, they would vote for him.

Question 113

Giolitti’s problems after the Libyan war were exacerbated by…

Answer 113

the extension of the franchise.

Question 114

Extension of the franchise: Who did Giolitti have to give the vote to?

Answer 114

• Men who had fought in the war, so all men who had completed military service
• All men over 30 could vote by 1912

Question 115

Extension of the franchise: After Giolitti had extended the franchise, what did it mean for Italy’s electorate?

Answer 115

Meant 70% of Italy’s electorate were now illiterate

Question 116

By extending the franchise, what did Giolitti hope would happen?

Answer 116

He hoped that extending the franchise would increase the popularity of the Liberals as men in more rural areas (more conservative) could now vote.

Question 117

Extension of the franchise: What showed the failure of Giolitti’s strategy?

Answer 117

The 1913 election

Question 118

How did the 1913 elections show the failure of Giolitti’s choice to extend the franchise?

Answer 118

• Liberal deputies won 318 seats, a loss of 71 from the 1909 elections.
• The PSI now had 20% of the vote
• The conservative peasants were voting for the Catholic Party rather than the Liberals. This meant Giolitti was now RELIANT on CATHOLIC SUPPORT, especially as he had promised to make concessions to the Church in return for their support.

Question 119

In the 1913 elections (after extension of the franchise), how many seats did the Liberals win?

Answer 119

318 seats, a load of 71 from the 1909 elections

Shows failure of the franchise extension

Question 120

In the 1913 elections (after extension of the franchise), how many seats did the Liberals win? (showing failure of franchise extension)

Answer 120

318 seats, a loss of 71 from the 1909 elections.

Question 121

In the 1913 elections (after extension of the franchise), how much of the vote did the Socialists now have?

Answer 121

PSI now had 20% of the vote (huge number)

Question 122

In the 1913 elections (after extension of the franchise), who were the conservative peasants actually voting for?

Answer 122

The Catholic Party rather than the Liberals. This meant Giolitti was now RELIANT on CATHOLIC SUPPORT, especially as he had promised to make concessions to the Church in return for their support.

Question 123

After the extension of the franchise and 1913 election, what was now impossible and why?

Answer 123

Trasformismo was now impossible as the Socialists and the Nationalists would not work with a Liberal government that was making concessions to the Catholics. They don’t like his concessions.

This saw Giolitti stand down in the spring of 1914. He was seen as the leader of a weak liberal government that alienated everyone but the Catholics.

Question 124

When did Giolitti resign as Prime Minister after the failures of Libya and franchise extension?

Answer 124

21st March 1914

Question 125

Why did Giolitti resign in March 1914?

Answer 125

• Socialists and radicals withdrew their support for his coalition government
• Extending the franchise had led to a situation where mass suffrage meant that actually nationalists and Catholics got the most support
• Trasformismo was not working
• Libya ended up as a failure

By 1914, a wall of opposition had built up against Giolitti and his political methods. His alliances had fallen apart and he was losing support from many parties.

Question 126

Negative consequences of the Libyan war:

Answer 126

• Increased support for the Nationalists as the ANI claimed credit for the policy and led to them demanding more from the Liberal government. ANI also capitalised on dislike of Giolitti by claiming he mismanaged the war. Lost total support of ANI over Libya.
• Loss of life - 3,500 Italians died fighting.
• Cost 1,300 million lire.
• Destroyed Giolitti’s cooperation with the PSI which had been key to programme of Trasformismo.
• The Catholics and Nationalists formed a temporary alliance which weakened moderate socialists and increased the influence of maximalists in the party. Maximalists took control of PSI.
• Franchise extension meant Liberals lost seats and socialists won 20% of the vote.
• Socialists and nationalists unwilling to work with Giolitti as he was making concessions to Catholics.

Giolitti resigns as PM in March 1914.

Question 127

Libya produced the same crops as Italy therefore…

Answer 127

fall in crop prices.

Question 128

Libyan war: What did emigrants refuse to do?

Answer 128

Emigrants refused to move to Libya to start an Italian colony.

Question 129

Who was Giolitti replaced with after he resigned in March 1914?

Answer 129

Antonio Salandra

Question 130

What was Antonio Salandra like as a PM after replacing Giolitti?

Answer 130

His support floundered, and by June 1914 Italy seemed to be on the verge of anarchy. The outbreak of World War One would be yet another challenge for Salandra in the years to come.

Question 131

Summarise the successes of Libyan invasion in 1911

Answer 131

Looked like the invasion had been a success. Both the PSI and Catholics were co-operated with the Liberals, Italy seemed unified.

Question 132

What were the problems facing Italy from by 1911 categorised into?

Answer 132

• Political problems e.g limited franchise
• Economic problems e.g northern and southern Italy having different wealth
• Social problems e.g illiteracy

Question 133

Political problems facing Italy by 1911: Why was limited franchise a problem?

Answer 133

Not until 1912 that the vote was extended to most adult men. Many Italians felt alienated from the political system.

Question 134

Political problems facing Italy by 1911: What began to grow as a response to the growth of socialism and disillusionment with the Liberal government?

Answer 134

Nationalism

Question 135

Political problems facing Italy by 1911: Who was seen as a threat by the Liberals? Why?

Answer 135

Radicals and Republicans - because their base in the north of Italy and their desire to overhaul the political system was threatening.

Question 136

Political problems facing Italy by 1911: Why did the Liberals face growing competition after 1912?

Answer 136

They only represented the professional classes, not the bulk of the population

Question 137

Political problems facing Italy by 1911: What were the liberal politicians afraid of?

Answer 137

The weakness of the ruling class in the south and peasant discontent as a result of this.

Question 138

Political problems facing Italy by 1911:Why was Trasformismo such a problem?

Answer 138

Political parties were so weak that factions were formed to make coalitions known as Trasformismo. This led to instability as they easily fell apart.

Question 139

Political problems facing Italy by 1911: How many governments were there between 1870 and 1915?

Answer 139

20 different governments

Question 140

Political problems facing Italy by 1911: What did the socialists do against Liberals governments?

Answer 140

Often formed coalitions of opposition against Liberals governments whom the viewed as the party of the elite.

Question 141

Political problems facing Italy by 1911: Why was the Catholic Church hostile to the new unified Italy?

Answer 141

A significant amount of land was taken from the Church (the Papal States) and so most Catholic politicians withdrew from political life, paving the way for Liberal Italy to dominate. Only in 1913 was an alliance formed between Catholics and Liberals.

Question 142

When was an alliance formed between Catholics and Liberals?

Answer 142

1913

Question 143

Political problems facing Italy by 1911: What was a problem with MPs?

Answer 143

Known as Deputies, they often served local interests rather than national ones. This meant they often switched political allegiance and were open to bribes.

Question 144

Social problems facing Italy by 1911: What percentage of Italians were illiterate in 1870? Where were rates higher?

Answer 144

More than 69% of Italians were illiterate in 1870. Rates were higher in the south.

Question 145

Social problems facing Italy by 1911: What was limited and localised?

Answer 145

Industry was limited and localised due to lack of resources and poor transport and communications.

Question 146

Social problems facing Italy by 1911: What damaged the economy in southern Italy and what angered people further?

Answer 146

A series of natural disasters in southern Italy damaged the economy and led to anger amongst the people at the lack of aid provided by the government.

Question 147

Social problems facing Italy by 1911: What was increasing in the south that led to disease?

Answer 147

Poverty was increasing in the south, leading to diseases like cholera and typhus. The main killers here were TB (tuberculosis) and malaria.

Question 148

Social problems facing Italy by 1911: What led to overcrowding in cities and high mortality rates?

Answer 148

Increased migration led to overcrowding in cities and high infant mortality rates (around 40% of all registered deaths in Italy were under 5 years old)

Question 149

Social problems facing Italy by 1911: What percentage of registered deaths in Italy were under 5 years old?

Answer 149

Around 40%

Question 150

Social problems facing Italy by 1911: After the 1890s, how many Italians (mainly from the south), were emigrating each year?

Answer 150

About 200,000 Italians

This was seen as a disaster as their skills could have been used to strengthen the economy.

Question 151

Social problems facing Italy by 1911: Why was modernisation in agriculture in the north a problem?

Answer 151

Increased social divisions in rural areas as labourers were often sacked. This led to political AGITATION.

Question 152

Social problems facing Italy by 1911: Why did attempts to improve the economy in the south only serve to damage industry in the south?

Answer 152

Southern Italian landowners wanted to protect their own interests.

Question 153

Social problems facing Italy by 1911: Gaining colonies was one way to achieve national identity and unity, but what happened to early Italian attempts at colonisation?

Answer 153

They were disastrous e.g Italy’s defeat at the Battle of Adwa in Abyssinia 1896 was a humiliation.

Question 154

Economic problems facing Italy by 1911: In 1910, what was the divide between wealth in north and south?

Answer 154

Northern Italy had 48% of the nation’s wealth
Southern Italy had 27% of the nation’s wealth

Question 155

Economic problems facing Italy by 1911: What was limited to the north of Italy?

Answer 155

Economic growth was limited to the north of Italy whilst the south remained poorer.

Question 156

Economic problems facing Italy by 1911: In 1911, Milan, Genoa, and Turin accounted for…

Answer 156

55% of industrial income.

Question 157

Economic problems facing Italy by 1911: What was Italy’s economy largely dependent on?

Answer 157

Agriculture

Question 158

Examples of Italy’s economy being dependent on agriculture by 1911

Answer 158

In the North, more wheat crops were being produced by 1910 and the Po Valley in the North was very fertile.

In the South, items like oil, wine and citrus fruits were produced although land was less fertile due to deforestation.

Question 159

Despite problems, there was significant economic growth by 1911. What example is there?

Answer 159

Industrial production doubled 1899-1910

Question 160

What made Italy hard to govern?

Answer 160

Widespread economic and social problems made for a challenging political environment.

Systematic poverty, unrest and the huge divide between the north and the south of the country made Italy hard to govern.

Question 161

Why was the increase in franchise a problem for the Liberals?

Answer 161

People whose situation and views could be safely ignored now had a political vote and they were NOT inclined to support the Liberals, whom they saw as ignoring their concerns.

Question 162

Emigration was increasing. Why was this a problem?

Answer 162

Limited industrial development drew people to the northern cities which was increasing the potential for their radicalisation.

Question 163

What was disastrous for political stability, drawing Italy into the First World War at huge cost?

Answer 163

The fact that Italy strove for international recognition in the early 20th century meant she was being drawn into the international system of alliances and aiming to establish colonies abroad to cement its great power status.

This would help draw Italy into the First World War.

Question 164

After unification of Italy in 1870, what were there significant differences in between states?

Answer 164

Language, culture and poltics

Question 165

Stats for 1861

Answer 165

Between 2.5% and 10% of Italians were able to speak standard Italian, and not all Italians supported unification. Italy had to develop political systems and begin the process of becoming a properly unified country.

Question 166

Describe the political system after unification

Answer 166

The new state established a parliamentary system similar to that in Britain. The constitution originated as the constitution of Piedmont of 1848, known as the Statuto Albertino. It was the result of popular pressure in a time of unrest in Europe, guaranteeing equality before the law, rights of free assembly and a free press.

It also set up the system of constitutional monarchy and elected parliament that Italy inherited in 1870.

King was head of state and had executive power. The king actually had very far reaching powers.

Question 167

Describe the role of the King in 1870

Answer 167

• Head of state
• Could appoint and dismiss ministers (even PM) and senators
• Controlled foreign policy
• Was the face of the regime at times of crisis
• Ran everyday affairs of the country

Question 168

What did the Italian political system consist of from 1870

Answer 168

• Senate (the upper House)
• Chamber of Deputies (the elected Lower House or Parliament)

Senate members appointed by the King for life. Chamber of deputies elected every five years and was more politically powerful than the senate.

Question 169

What were the political weaknesses in the Italian political system from 1870?

Answer 169

• Although Chamber of Deputies was, in theory, democratically elected, it was based upon a very limited franchise. franchise was the same as had been originally introduced in the Statuto Albertino in 1848. and was very conservative, limitations on age, property ownership and education qualifications. As a result, popular participation in Italy before 1912 was extremely limited

Question 170

What were the political weaknesses in the Italian political system from 1870?

Answer 170

• Franchise was limited and conservative so Chamber of Deputies wasn’t really elected fairly
• Confused and weak political system/parties
• Trasformismo was weak and led to instability
• Bribery from individual politicians to political opponents
• Chamber of deputies primarily served local interests instead of national ones

Question 171

In the 1860s, how many Italians could vote?

Answer 171

ONLY 500,000 COULD VOTE out of 32 million Italians, meaning that less than 2% of the country had a say in who was elected.

In 1882, the vote was extended to 25% of adult males, but it was not until 1912 that the right to vote was extended to most adult men, increasing the number of people voting from 3 million to 8 million.

Question 172

How was the political system after the 1870s very weak?

Answer 172

• Politics was dominated by a small and wealthy elite.
• The system was extremely confused, with party labels being adopted but little sign that they were meaningful, rather than a vehicle for ambitious men to gain the influence they desired.
• As political parties were so weak, governments were formed of factions that had come together to make a coalition government - known as trasformismo. Led to significant degree of instability in Italian political life. Coalitions could easily fall apart, which led to the succession of short-term governments (there were more than 20 different governments between 1870-1915)
• Individual politicians frequently bribed political opponents and ministers seeking to build a government would offer potential colleagues prominent jobs or financial incentives.
• Members of parliaments (Chamber of Deputies) were primarily serving local interests rather than national ones, so they were open to switching allegiance or faction if they were offered sufficient inducements e. polices favourable to their region or promotion.

Also lots of different prime ministers from 1870-1918.

Question 173

Summarise the political weaknesses from 1870

Answer 173

Italy remained politically disunited, with little sense of national politics or unity. Many felt unification had left them behind and that democracy was an illusion.

Question 174

Italian politics was not divided into clearly defined parties. What were the several key groupings into which most Italian politicians were divided?

Answer 174

• Liberals
• Radicals and republicans
• Socialists
• Catholics
• Nationalists

Question 175

What was the Kingdom of Italy founded on and what did this mean for Italy?

Answer 175

Kingdom of Italy was founded on liberal principles. It became more right wing as the Liberal politicians saw the need to establish uniformity and order following 1870, meaning that regional differences and opinions were suppressed rather than considered and listened to.

Question 176

What were the north Italian liberal political leaders afraid of and what did this mean for politics?

Answer 176

They were afraid of the weakness of the ruling classes in the south and the tendency towards violent peasant discontent. This moulded a political system that just ignored cracks in unity, attempts to impose uniform and sometimes unsuitable policies, and by restricting the political involvement of the population.

Question 177

Who dominated the Italian political scene before the First World War?

Answer 177

Liberal politicians - they were adept at creating coalitions and operating within the system of Trasformismo.

Question 178

After franchise extension in 1912, why were the Liberals facing growing political competition from groups with different ideas and priorities?

Answer 178

Because their dominance was increasingly threatened as they had not built up a mass base of support over their years in power - their priorities favoured a narrow interest group rather than the bulk of the voting population.

Question 179

What did the Radicals and Republicans want? Who was the leader?

Answer 179

They wanted to avoid state intervention in the economy, triumphed “morality” over scandal and denounced what they saw as the corruption of the Liberal state.
Leader was Felice Cavallotti.
They wanted significant changes in the three key institutions of Italy - the monarchy, the administration and the army. They called for position of deputy to be paid, compulsory and free primary education, social legislation to establish pensions and more.

Question 180

When was the Italian Republican Party (the PRI) formed?

Answer 180

1895

Question 181

What were the views of the Italian Republican Party?

Answer 181

Shared very similar policies are the Radicals, but less prepared to work with Liberal governments and were more focused on reducing the powers of the Crown than the other priorities.

Question 182

Why were the Radicals and Republicans seen as a threat by the established political elite?

Answer 182

Because of their credible programme and base in the modern and industrialised north of Italy.

Question 183

When was the Italian Socialist Party formed? (PSI)

Answer 183

1895

Question 184

What did the PSI call for?

Answer 184

An economic struggle by organised workers to win immediate advantages. It aimed to address the concerns of ordinary working people and had MASS appeal.

Question 185

How was the PSI organised?

Answer 185

Along the lines of modern political parties, with individual membership, local networks, rules and procedures, party cards and congresses (national meetings).

Question 186

What was the PSI’s national newspaper?

Answer 186

Avanti! which helped to publicise and unify the party

Question 187

After only 5 years in existence, in 1900, how many votes did the PSI win in the general election?

Answer 187

200,000

Question 188

After only 5 years in existence, in 1900, how many votes did the PSI win in the general election?

Answer 188

200,000 votes, holding 32 seats

Question 189

What did the key policies of the PSI include?

Answer 189

Votes for all men, an eight-hour working day, women’s rights

Question 190

What happened when Italy was unified in 1870? (catholics)

Answer 190

Land was seized from the Pope - the Papal States. Pope Pius IX shut himself off away in the Vatican as protest against this reduction in papal power and forbade Catholics from taking part in elections.

This led most practising Catholic politicians to withdraw from political life in protest, paving the way for the Liberals to maintain control for nearly 50 years.

Question 191

What did Giolitti aim to do with the Catholics when he became prime minister in 1892?

Answer 191

Aimed to repair the relationship between Church and State, which was helped by Pope Pius IX’s desire to defeat the threat of socialism, which the Church regarded as godless and destructive.

Question 192

What did the Catholic movement eventually do under the orders of Pope Pius IX?

Answer 192

Allied with the Liberals under the Pope’s order. This helped the Liberals massively in the 1913 elections, however, there was still ongoing arguments between the Liberals about education and charity.

Question 193

Describe the nationalism that existed in the early 20th century (ANI)

Answer 193

Aggressive, expansionist, anti-parliamentary and exclusive, mostly as a response to the growth of socialism and disillusionment with the Liberal government of Giolitti. Spoke for businessmen and producers rather than the workers.

Question 194

Who were the nationalists earliest supporters?

Answer 194

Urban lower-middle-class men, often small business owners, who rejected the liberal values of parliamentary democracy and were disillusioned former supporters of other groups.

Question 195

In the early 20th century, what was Italy’s economy like?

Answer 195

Still developing. There was significant industrial growth but this was limited to certain areas of northern Italy.

Question 196

Examples of how policies designed to encourage further modernisation had unfortunate unintended consequences

Answer 196

Italy’s agriculture development. This led to increased grain yields but also added to the number of vulnerable and discontented landless labourers.

Question 197

What was the change in Italy’s economy by 1914?

Answer 197

It had changed significantly BUT was still far behind countries like Germany and Britain. Although steps had been taken to improve the economic lives of the Italian people, many did not feel the difference, leading to INCREASED POLITICAL DISSENT and SUPPORT FOR RADICAL PARTIES in the years to come.

Question 198

Despite increased industrial activity at the beginning of the 20th century , what was the problem with it?

Answer 198

Limited in geographical scope and size. While the development was impressive, it started from a very low base, so Italy’s industrial economy was always far behind that of its European rivals.

Industry was generally restricted to the north of Italy, despite some pockets of development in Naples, Veneto, Tuscany and Sicily. Even within the north, industrialisation was uneven and localised.

Question 199

What region was significantly ahead of other regions in terms of industrialisation and why?

Answer 199

The north-west because it had good transport links, accessible markets, an existing industrial tradition and appropriate power sources e.g hydro-electric power.

Question 200

Why was Italian industrial development so limited and localised?

Answer 200

• Lack of key resources e.g iron, steel and coal meant Italy was forced to import them.
• Labour force was large but also unskilled.
• Industrial machinery had to be imported from abroad.
• Communications, transport and energy sources all underdeveloped in most areas.

Question 201

Despite limited industrial developments, when was there significant industrial growth?

Answer 201

In the years 1899-1910, where industrial production doubled.

Exports increased at a rate of 4.5% a year.

Question 202

Between 1901 and 1911, what did the number of workers involved in industrial production increase by?

Answer 202

2 million

Question 203

What was the significant industrial growth between 1899-1910 due to?

Answer 203

• Technological advancements.
• Greater financial investment by the state, including the provision of subsidies to key industries e.g shipbuilding.
• An increase in agricultural productivity.
• Negotiations with workers to improve the wages and conditions.

Question 204

How did the Liberal government try to remedy the south being far les modernised than the north?

Answer 204

A liberal economist, Francesco Saverio Nitti introduced reforms. He believed the process of unification had actually stunted the economic development of the south and thought that state intervention was necessary to get it back on track.

Question 205

Describe Nitti’s reforms

Answer 205

1904: Law to stimulate industrial growth in Naples

1904 and 1906: Law on Basilicata (1904) a d Calabria (19060 to allow reconstruction of forests

1910: Laws to extend and consolidate state forestry

1911: Laws for the reclamation of forest basins

Question 206

What happened after 1900 that became a problem for industry in the south?

Answer 206

After 1900, the Italian government attempted to unite Italy economically by ending internal tariffs and a single Italian economic market which supported free trade.

Unfortunately this damaged industry in the southern parts of Italy and the gap between the north an south only increased, as the southern Italian elite largely consisted of landowners wanted to protect or increase their privileges.

Question 207

What was the agricultural stance like when Italy became unified?

Answer 207

The Italian economy was largely agrarian

Question 208

Agricultural developments: In 1870, what percentage of the population was dependent on the land to support themselves and their families?

Answer 208

68% of the population

Question 209

Describe North Italian farming 1901-1910

Answer 209

• Experienced dramatic changes within agriculture.
• Production levels of key crops e.g wheat increased.
• Particular progress made in Po Valley, a rich and fertile region.
• Improvements in mechanisation and fertilisers made farming more profitable and efficient.
• Farms in north had more irrigation and drainage systems, so less land wasted or liable to flooding.
• Consequently subsistence farming disappeared in north during this period.
• Development of larger farms - which embraced capitalism.

Question 210

What was the problem in farms in the north?

Answer 210

More social division between rural areas of northern Italy. Growing numbers of landless agricultural labourers caused society to become less stable and increased political agitation.

Question 211

Problems with farming in the south

Answer 211

Produced goods that were not so high value, operated in a less commercial way, disease, and open to more agricultural problems (deforestation) and natural disasters e.g earthquakes in Calabria in 1905.

Question 212

Why were natural disasters a further problem for the south?

Answer 212

Financial support for the area was essential but was extremely slow from the government, leading to the south despising the government even more, believing they were favouring the North more.

This was exacerbated by the employment of northern contractors in the rebuilding.

Question 213

Why were people so vulnerable to poverty?

Answer 213

Increase in landless labourers employed by wealthier farmers on a day by day basis meant more people were vulnerable to extreme poverty.

Question 214

What did poverty make the population more vulnerable to?

Answer 214

Diseases e.g typhus, rickets, pellagra and cholera, malaria, TB.

Cramped and unsanitary living conditions exacerbated this and contained water and poor nutrition.

Question 215

What percentage of Italians were illiterate in 1870?

Answer 215

69%

Illiteracy was greater in the countryside and more women were illiterate than men because of attitudes towards gender roles.

Question 216

Example of illiteracy being higher in the south

Answer 216

• 80% of the southern population illiterate
• 42% of the population in Piedmont (north) were illiterate

Question 217

Examples of primary education varying

Answer 217

In Piedmont (north) there were 26 schools for every 10,000 inhabitants, whereas in Sicily (south) there were only 6 schools for the same number of people.

Question 218

Governmental efforts to improve health and education: How did the Liberal governments of the early 20th century try and improve the situation for Italy’s poor?

Answer 218

Giolitt’s government introduced:
* Sickness, accident and pension schemes
* Raising minimum working age to 12 years
* Setting maximum working hours
* Responsibility for primary schooling passed from municipal councils to central govt
* Food taxes reduced to make food more affordable
* Laws passed to enforce public holidays and provide free treatment for malaria

Question 219

Describe health developments 1885-1902

Answer 219

Hospitals improved in this period and developments in medicine meant that the number of people cured in hospitals increased by 50%. Also improvements in life expectancy and reduced infant mortality.

Question 220

What did life expectancy change to from 1861 to 1914?

Answer 220

1861 = 30 years old
1914 = 47 years old

Question 221

By 1914, what was Italy’s life expectancy the same as?

Answer 221

As people in other European countries - so good thing

Question 222

By 1911, what was the national average for illiteracy?

Answer 222

37.6%, although the south still showed disproportionately higher levels.

Question 223

Why were poor families in the south less likely to enrol their children in school?

Answer 223

Their labour was more important to them and education in terms of immediate survival.

Question 224

Why did Italy want a healthier and more educated population?

Answer 224

Wanted to be seen as a modern state, comparable with other “great powers” within Europe.

Question 225

What did the number of men involved in manufacturing increase by in the years 1900-1911?

Answer 225

Increased by 400,000 as thousands moved from the countryside into the town to take advantage of the new industrial jobs on offer.

However, this was largely limited to the industrial cities of Milan, Turin and Genoa.

Question 226

Although industry had modernised, what was the problems with this?

Answer 226

It was not the large-scale factory production witnessed in other industrial revolutions, and the south of Italy again remained largely isolated from such developments.

Question 227

After the 1890s, approximately how many Italians emigrated every year?

Answer 227

200,000

Question 228

How many Italians had emigrated to the USA and South America by 1915?

Answer 228

5 million Italians, with around 1.5 million people leaving Italy in 1912-13 alone. Most of these people came from the south of Italy.

Question 229

Why was the large number of people emigrating Italy seen as such a large problem by many Italians?

Answer 229

The loss of such a large number of emigrants was viewed as a disaster by many Italians, given that their skills could have been used to further strengthen the economy.

Question 230

Who did Italy desire to be a great power equal to?

Answer 230

Britain
France
Germany

After all, Italy was unified before Germany and had assisted in the wars of the nineteenth century alongside the others.

Question 231

What was one of Italy’s principal foreign policy aims?

Answer 231

To gain equal status and prestige with the other powers. It was hoped that this would also bring greater national identity and unity.

Question 232

What did Italy also hope to gain and why?

Answer 232

Colonies overseas. It was one way to achieve identity and unity as well as to improve the economy through access to raw materials and new commercial markets.

Question 233

Example of how Italy’s early attempts at colonisation were disastrous

Answer 233

Italy’s defeat to Abyssinian forces at the Battle of Adwa in 1896.

It was a humiliation that temporarily halted Italy’s colonial ambitions. It had to accept Abyssinia’s independence and pay 10 million lire in war reparations.

Question 234

Who encouraged the government to expand with colonies overseas?

Answer 234

Italian nationalists - they had become more vocal and felt that Liberal governments had failed to make Italy a major power. The ANI fervently supported imperialism as a way to achieve Italian glory.

Question 235

After the franchise extension, what did the electorate increase to?

Answer 235

3 million to 8.5 million

Question 236

How did Giolitti try to improve the economy in the south?

Answer 236

By constructing aqueducts and issuing tax incentives and loans, but the south always felt left behind.

Question 237

Summarise the views of the ANI (nationalists)

Answer 237

• Saw Giolitti as weak and corrupt
• Educated middle class support
• Ban on public sector strikes
• Formed in 1910
• Most opposed to G’s policies
• Wanted colonial expansion and irredente lands - Trentino and Trieste from Austria.
• Angry about Italy’s defeat at Adowa
• Opposed socialists

Giolitti lost total support of the ANI over Libya. They say he mismanaged the war.

Question 238

Summarise the views of the Socialists

Answer 238

• Had 79 deputies by 1913
• Massive growth in popularity
• Offshoot of socialists known as Maximalists did not want to work with Liberals. They wanted violent revolution.
• Formed in 1892
• Leader was Filippo Turati
• Many believed that only socialism could solve Italy’s problems.
• War destroyed Giolitti’s cooperation with the PSI and maximalists took control of the PSI. Gained 20% of vote in 1913.

Question 239

Summarise views of the Catholics

Answer 239

• Co-operated with the Liberals at a local level.
• 1913 Pope swung his support in favour of Giolitti.
• Catholics and ANI form a brief alliance which weakened the PSI.
• G was now reliant on catholic support after the extension of the franchise.

Question 240

Summarise Liberals

Answer 240

• Won over moderate socialists with some social reform such as state subsidised sickness BUT never won over maximalists.
• G announced that the Church and State were two parallel lines that should never meet. Unable to solve the Roman question BUT he did offer concessions to the Church to gain Catholic support.
• Giolitti invaded Libya partly to win over the ANI. Never really gained their support though as G compromised too much with the PSI.

Question 241

What was Italy part of since 1882?

Answer 241

The Triple Alliance

(Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy)

Question 242

Despite being part of the Triple Alliance, why did Italy’s treaty obligations not apply?

Answer 242

The Austrian government had not consulted the Italians before declaring war on Serbia.

Question 243

When WW1 started, what did Italy announce?

Answer 243

That she would remain neutral despite the calls from the Nationalists for Italy to honour her commitments.

Question 244

What did many politicians believe joining the First World War would do for Italy?

Answer 244

Would put too great a strain on the Italian economy

Question 245

What was general public consensus about joining the war?

Answer 245

Much of the Italian population was at best uninterested in entering the war on either side.

Question 246

What did the declaration of neutrality to do parliament?

Answer 246

It split the Liberals in parliament and set off a political crisis.

Question 247

What was Prime Minister Antonio Salandra’s view on joining the war? Why?

Answer 247

He argued Italy SHOULD join the war, fearing that if Germany won they would not be sympathetic to an ally who failed to come to their side at this critical time. However, in the event of a victory for the Triple Entente (Britain, France, Russia), Italy would not see any of her ambitions in the Mediterranean realised. He also thought joining the war would give him the opportunity to introduce repressive legislation.

Question 248

Was Salandra an interventionist or neutralist?

Answer 248

Interventionist

Question 249

What were Salandra’s reasons for wanting to join the war?

Answer 249

• Feared that if Germany won, they wouldn’t be sympathetic to an ally who failed to come to their side at this critical time.
• Joining would give Salandra the opportunity to introduce repressive legislation that would offer an authoritarian solution to Italy’s problems.
• With an Italian victory, Salandra and his methods would not be challenged.

Question 250

What evidence is there of Catholics working with Giolitti?

Answer 250

By 1911, Catholics were part of governing coalitions in cities such as Turin and Venice.

Question 251

What was the greatest threat to Giolitti’s government in Italy 1911-14?

Answer 251

The divided nature of Italian politics and the subsequent failure of Trasformismo. The ANI, PSI and Catholics all had such differing views which, combined with an unwillingness to compromise, led to a situation where Giolitti’s policy of Trasformismo was unworkable. The Libyan war simply bought these issues into focus and the extension of the franchise simply exacerbated the lack of political consensus, thus showing the war was not the most signifiant issue.

Could argue that until the Libyan war, political difficulties were solvable. It was after the Libyan war and subsequent extension of the franchise that Trasformismo became unworkable.

Question 252

With his view of wanting to join the war, what did Salandra do?

Answer 252

Salandra and Sidney Sonnino, the foreign minister, began secret discussions with Britain, France, Germany and Austria.

Question 253

Who offered the best deal to Salandra in the build up of him wanting to join the war?

Answer 253

The Entente offered the best deal - offering much of the irredente lands to Italy.

Question 254

When was the Treaty of London signed?

Answer 254

26th April 1915

Question 255

26th April 1915

Answer 255

Italy signed the Treaty of London, pledging to support Britain, France and Russia.

Question 256

Who was in the Triple Entente when Italy joined the war in 1915?

Answer 256

Britain, France and Russia

Question 257

What was the Treaty of London that Italy signed in 1915?

Answer 257

A secret treaty between neutral Italy and the Allied forces of France, Britain, and Russia to bring Italy into World War I. The Allies wanted Italy’s participation because of its border with Austria.

Question 258

What happened when the news of the Treaty of London broke?

Answer 258

It caused serious unrest in Italy. The negotiations had been conducted in complete secrecy and not even the army general staff had been informed. The PSI, the Catholic Party and the Pope were all against intervention.

Question 259

Who was against intervention into WWI?

Answer 259

The PSI, the Catholic Party and the Pope were all against intervention. The prefects - local government representatives - reported there was no appetite for war outside the major cities.

Question 260

What happened in early May, after the Treaty of London was signed in April 1915?

Answer 260

Giolitti and 300 deputies announced their opposition to the Treaty of London, leaving Parliament totally divided.

Question 261

Who was expelled from the Socialist party for supporting intervention after the Treaty of London was signed in 1915?

Answer 261

Mussolini

Question 262

Describe what happened with Salandra, the King and Giolitti after the story of the Treaty of London broke in Italy?

Answer 262

There was serious unrest in Italy, with lots of people against intervention. Salandra resigned and the King asked Giolitti to form a new ministry. However, if Italy did not honour the Treaty of London it would have betrayed both sides and, more importantly, the King informed Giolitti that he would abdicate if the Treaty was not honoured, which would trigger a crisis in Italy.

In this context, Giolitti refused the Kings offer and Salandra was reinstated as PM on 16th May 1915. On 25th May, Italy officially declared war on Austria.

Question 263

When did Italy officially declare war on Austria?

Answer 263

25th May 1915

Question 264

What is important to note about Italy joining the war?

Answer 264

The foreign and domestic realities forced Italy into war - not because of pressure from interventionists.

Question 265

What were the reasons for Italy joining the war in 1915?

Answer 265

• Triple Entente offered them the best deal - land.
• Want irredente lands back.
• Salandra wanted to introduce repressive laws - joining war would give excuse to use emergency powers.
• Some pressure from nationalists, press and military.

Question 266

What tensions existed in Italy prior to their entry into WW1?

Answer 266

• Political tensions over Trasformismo.
• Economic problems - industrialisation uneven and localised.

Tensions existed BETWEEN:
* Nationalists - socialists
* Within liberals - interventionists vs neutralist politicians
* peasants vs elites
* politicians/state vs the public
* Regions
* The educated and the illiterate

Question 267

When war broke out in 1915, who was happy and who was not?

Answer 267

The Nationalists were happy. They had been consistently supporting intervention in war. However, not everyone supported war, leading to political tension. The Catholics wanted war, but not with Austria. The Socialists don’t support war.

Question 268

Examples of increased social tensions during the First World War

Answer 268

• Conditions were horrific and thousands of Italians were killed by cholera and frostbite.
• Italians conscripts treated poorly by commanders.
• Harsh punishments used by Luigi Cadorna.
• Humiliating defeat at the Battle of Caporetto.
• Resentment and unrest among the industrial workers in the north.

Question 269

Examples of increased political tensions during the First World War

Answer 269

• Salandra criticised after the Strafexpedition and was forced to resign in 1916.
• PSI continued to oppose war.
• The defeat at Caporetto reignited the divisions that had surfaced during the intervention crisis.
• War spending would bring about inevitable inflation and massive cuts to government spending.

Question 270

Examples of increased economic tensions during the First World War

Answer 270

• Italy’s economic growth during the war was based on government investment in war production.
• Italy’s economy had become unbalanced with a few war-based sectors growing at a much faster rate than other industries. The north and south divide increased.

Question 271

Examples of reduced tensions that actually happened during WW1

Answer 271

• The young and dynamic Vittorio Orlando became PM in October 1917 (after Boselli)
• New commander General Diaz reorganised the army and was a more cautious commander - casualty rates decreased.
• Rations for soldiers was raised and increased annual leave.
• In December 1917, organisation was created to look after the welfare of soldiers and their families.
• Lots of industrial success.

Question 272

What had Salandra hoped for re the war? What happened instead?

Answer 272

A brief, offensive war that would bring Italy almost immediate territorial gains. Instead, the war between Austria and Italy was fought predominantly in the mountainous area bordering the two countries and was characterised by mainly STATIC trench warfare in the ice and snow of the difficult alpine terrain.

Question 273

What were conditions like during the First World War?

Answer 273

Conditions were horrific and thousands of Italian soldiers were killed by cholera and frostbite.

Question 274

What followed Italy’s declaration of war that led to thousands of Italian soldiers being sacrificed?

Answer 274

Two years of stalemate followed Italy’s declaration of war and thousands of soldiers were often sacrificed in order to move a few hundred metres. In 1915, 62,000 Italians died during four attempted offensives against the Austrians that failed to change the situation at the front.

Question 275

How many Italians died in 1915 during Italy’s four attempted offensives against the Austrians that failed to change the situation at the front?

Answer 275

62,000 Italians died

Question 276

How many men were conscripted into the Italian army? (WW1)

Answer 276

Nearly five million men, with the majority being peasants or agricultural landowners. Southern peasant conscripts were overrepresented and the ideals of the war concerning Italian expansion meant little to them.

Question 277

Describe the problem with language during WW1

Answer 277

The majority of peasant conscript, who spoke a vast range of dialects, could not understand the orders being given to them by those in charge, who were predominantly educated northern Italians, who mainly spoke the official Italian language.

Question 278

WW1: How were Italian conscripts treated?

Answer 278

Treated poorly by their commanders and rations were extremely low.

Question 279

WW1: What could many Italians not comprehend? How many were court-martialled for desertion?

Answer 279

They could not comprehend why was the war was being fought or why Italy had joined; around 290,000 Italian soldiers were court martially during the war for desertion.

Question 280

Who was the harsh Italian commander passing death sentences to his own soldiers?

Answer 280

Luigi Cadorna

Question 281

What was Cadorna’s solution to the lack of discipline and morale within the Italian army?

Answer 281

To use harsh punishments. Military tribunals passed 4,000 death sentences on Italian soldiers for desertion and indiscipline (more per capita then any other Western army).

Question 282

How many death sentences did military tribunals pass for desertion and indiscipline?

Answer 282

4,000 death sentences

Question 283

What did Italian leaders fear about prisoner of war camps and what did they do in response?

Answer 283

Leaders feared that if soldiers heard that conditions in prisoner of war camps were tolerable they might be inclined to surrender. Therefore, the government hampered any attempts to help Italian prisoners; 600,000 who had been captured were left to survive on 1,000 calories a day. 100,000 died of hunger related illnesses (5 times the number from France or Britain, who were allowed to receive food parcels from home).

Those who survived the camps came out with a strong feeling of abandonment and considerable anger towards a government they felt had betrayed them.

Question 284

How many died of hunger related illnesses in prisoner of war camps?

Answer 284

100,000

Question 285

What led to Calandra’s resignation in 1916?

Answer 285

In 1916, the Austrian army launched the Strafexpedition, a major offensive in the Trentine salient, in order to open a path that would allow it to attack Verona and Bologna.

Although the Italian army was able to regroup and halt the Austrian attack, it had a severe impact on army and public morale. Salandra was criticised by both military command and parliament, and was forced to resign.

Question 286

When was the Battle of Caporetto?

Answer 286

24th October 1917

Question 287

Describe what happened at the Battle of Caporetto

Answer 287

On 24th October 1917, Italy suffered a humiliating defeat by the Austro-Hungarian forces at the Battle of Caporetto. When Austrian forces attacked the Italian frontline, poor leadership and low morale saw that Italian army dissolve and a chaotic retreat took place.

Italian soldiers streamed down the mountains, many without weapons, and there were reports of looting and violence between Italian troops. Some Italian troops even celebrate because they fought the war was finally over.

It was a devastating defeat for the Italians.

Question 288

Stats about the Battle of Caporetto

Answer 288

• 700,000 Italians retreated 150km back and held the line at the River Piave.
• 300,000 Italian prisoners of war were captured by Austrians.
• 10,000 Italian soldiers killed and 30,000 wounded
• 400,000 soldiers simply vanished, in most cases using the chaos to head back to their homes in Italy.
• Cadorna, who was army Commander of Chief, blamed this mass defeat on the cowardice of his troops and executed several thousand as a result.
• The nationalists blamed the Liberal government for this, while the government blamed Cadorna who was REMOVED from his position.

Question 289

What was lost after the Battle of Caporetto?

Answer 289

Large quantities of military arms were lost, as was the majority of the Veneto region.
200,000 soldiers lost contact with their regiments.

Question 290

Why was the Battle of Caporetto and the actions of the Italian troops in the face of the Austrian offence an embarrassment to Italian leadership?

Answer 290

Because only months before, leaders had been claiming that the war had finally brought about patriotic unity.

Question 291

Who committed suicide after the Battle of Caporetto?

Answer 291

An Italian senator, Leopoldo Franchetti, who was so overwhelmed by the nature of defeat. Political repercussions.

Question 292

Why was there Austrian victory at the Battle of Caporetto?

Answer 292

While the initial Austrian victory had been due to tactical reasons, the nature of the retreat afterwards was accentuated by poor morale.

Question 293

What was the “good” that resulted from the Battle of Caporetto?

Answer 293

Overall, the Italian army did not collapse, nor did the defeat at Caporetto bring about revolution or the collapse of the state.

Question 294

What political tensions emerged after the defeat at the Battle of Caporetto?

Answer 294

The defeat at Caporetto reignited the divisions that had surfaced during the intervention crisis of 1914-15. The majority of Italy’s parliament still backed Giolitti and were not completely behind the war. These “neutralist” politicians were blamed for Italy’s poor military performance, and many nationalists called for a revolution to get rid of them. Some even called for Giolitti and other neutralists to be put on trial for treason.

Question 295

Who replaced Cadorna after the Battle of Caporetto?

Answer 295

General Diaz

Question 296

Who became Prime Minister after 1916?

Answer 296

Vittorio Orlando - who was young and dynamic.

Question 297

What happened under the command of General Diaz and PM Orlando?

Answer 297

• The army was reorganised under Diaz.
• Rations for soldiers were raised and annual leave increased.
• There was a greater focus on boosting soldier’s moral through lectures and trench newspapers.
• Promises of land reform were made to peasant conscripts.
• December 1917 - an organisation was created to look after the welfare of solders and their families.

Question 298

What was good about General Diaz?

Answer 298

He was a much more cautious commander than Cadorna, focused on holding the Italian line on the Piave River and avoiding the needless sacrifice of soldiers in suicidal offensive.

Question 299

What did casualty rates fall by under General Diaz?

Answer 299

Casualty rates fell considerably, from 520,000 in 1917 to 143,000 in 1918.

Question 300

Throughout the war, what did the PSI continue to do? How did the Nationalists respond to this?

Answer 300

Oppose the war, declaring a policy of “neither support nor sabotage” to the war effort. Its stance was despised by the nationalists, who saw it as defeatist, unpatriotic and un-Italian, blaming it for the poor performance of Italy’s military.

Question 301

In the hysteria following Caporetto, what happened to many PSI leaders?

Answer 301

They were arrested and imprisoned, accused of “stabbing Italy in the back”.

The PSI’s position on the war meant there was even greater polarisation between left and right in Italian politics.

Question 302

Who did Mussolini himself blame during the war?

Answer 302

He blamed Italian socialists, asserting that they were a more dangerous enemy than the Austrians and calling for a more forceful Italian leader who would help create a united country.

Question 303

At the beginning of the war, where was Italy in comparison to Austria (industry)?

Answer 303

Italy was behind Austria in nearly all economic areas crucial for the war. Italy produced 1 million tonnes of steel, the Austrians 2.6 million; for every 2 machine guns per Italian battalion, the Austrians had 12. However, over the course of the war, Italy made significant economic improvements.

Question 304

What significant economic problems were made during the war for Italy?

Answer 304

• Fiat established itself as Europe’s leading truck and lorry manufacturer, producing 25,000 vehicles in 1918 alone.
• Italy’s aeronautical industry produced 6,500 planes in 1918.
• By the end of the war, Italian industry had produced around 20,000 machine guns and 7,000 pieces of heavy artillery (a greater amount than the British).

Question 305

By the end of the war, what had Italian industry produced?

Answer 305

Around 20,000 machine guns and 7,000 pieces of heavy artillery (a greater amount than the British).

Question 306

What was industrial success in the war driven by?

Answer 306

The under-secretariat of arms and munitions, Alfredo Dallolio. He organised the recruitment of peasants and women into factories (a quarter of munitions factory employees were women).

• Hours of work were increased, strikes made illegal and workers would face military tribunals if their behaviour was deemed unsatisfactory.

Question 307

What did Fiat increase its workforce by?

Answer 307

From 6,000 to 30,000

Question 308

Rapid industrial growth in the war meant there was no risk involved for who?

Answer 308

For the industrialists, as they were backed up by the government.

Question 309

In the long term, why was rapid industrial growth during the war bad?

Answer 309

This growth was based almost entirely on government investment in war production, which had been paid for by foreign loans and printing more money. While the war continued, these issues could be ignored, but the end of the war would bring about inevitable inflation and massive cuts to government spending.

Question 310

How much debt did Italy find itself in by the end of the war? - compare to before the war

Answer 310

23 billion lire in debt (it had been 2.9 billion in debt before the war).

Question 311

What was the huge issue the came with the war on north-south divide?

Answer 311

The war economy accentuated one of Italy’s most troubling issues - the north/south divide. The majority of war production was based in the north east, and so the growth of industry in these areas accelerated the division between north and south.

The south remained a predominantly impoverished agricultural society, while the north’s economy grew by over 20% between 1911 and 1921. As a result, the South became increasingly bitter that it was being ignored and left behind as the north progressed.

Question 312

What did the north’s economy grow by between 1911 and 1921?

Answer 312

Over 20%

Question 313

How did Italy’s economy become unbalanced in the war?

Answer 313

A few war-based sectors were growing at a much faster rate than other industries.

The majority of war production was based in the north-east, accelerating the division between the north and south.

Question 314

Why was there resentment and unrest among the industrial workers in the north?

Answer 314

Workers were angry that they had to work long hours and were experiencing a fall in real wages of around 25%, while industrialists were making vast profits. This was made worse by the fact that most workers did not support the war.

Question 315

What did the government increase to pay for the war effort? What did this lead to?

Answer 315

The government increased indirect taxes to pay for the war effort, and this in turn led to greater social division, as the poorer in society felt these affected them more than the rich.

Question 316

By 1917, what was being rationed?

Answer 316

Bread and pasta

Question 317

By 1917, what was falling?

Answer 317

Meat and sugar consumption was falling sharply.

Question 318

What happened in August 1917?

Answer 318

50 workers were killed protesting in Turin against bread shortages and the continuation of the war.

The riots shocked politicians who made steps to increase food supplies and pro-war propaganda.

Question 319

What saw Italy’s prospects in the war improve and the Austro-Hungarian Empire on the verge of collapse by October 1918?

Answer 319

The shift in military tactics combined with the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire due to events elsewhere.

Question 320

As the Austro-Hungarian Empire seemed on the verge of collapse by October 1918, what did Orlando encourage Diaz to do?

Answer 320

To attack, believing that an Italian victory would help strengthen its position in the negotiations that would come after the war.

Question 321

What happened on the 24th October 1918?

Answer 321

Italian forces finally launched an offensive across the the Piave, entering the town of Vittorio Veneto and splitting the Austrian army in two. Austria signed an armistice on the 4th November 1918.

Question 322

When did Austria sign the armistice?

Answer 322

4th November 1918

Question 323

What was the Battle of Vittorio Veneto?

Answer 323

The decisive Italian victory and the final offensive launched on the Italian Front during World War I.

Question 324

What did the Battle of Vittorio Veneto come to symbolise?

Answer 324

The greatest moment of the Italian nation.

Question 325

What was the victory at Vittorio Veneto promoted as by the Nationalists?

Answer 325

As demonstrating the glory of Italy, achieved through patriotism, unity and self sacrifice.

Question 326

What did Orland proclaim about the Battle of Vittorio Veneto?

Answer 326

He proclaimed the victory as representing the patriotism and self-sacrifice he had hoped the war would bring about.

Question 327

Despite the victory at the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, what problems had been created/still remained?

Answer 327

• Many Italians believed the war would bring about political change.
• 650,000 casualties
• Economy even more greatly distorted between the north and south
• Debt and inflation
• Division between those who backed the war and those who didn’t
• Division between those who fought and those who didn’t
• Gouvernement had made promises to peasants and not fulfilled them
• Retiring soldiers wanted compensation for their sacrifices

Question 328

What was per capita income?

Answer 328

Only half that of France’s

Question 329

What kind of monarchy was Italy?

Answer 329

A constitutional monarchy

Question 330

What was made illegal for the war effort?

Answer 330

Striking

Question 331

How many planes did Italy’s aeronautical industry produce in 1918?

Answer 331

6,500

Question 332

What did workers’ real wages fall by?

Answer 332

25%

Question 333

To summarise, despite the Italian victory in WW1, what was the problem?

Answer 333

• The territorial gains they hoped for only party materialised.
• The war had left Italy with social and political problems.

Question 334

Explain Italy’s road to war in 1915

Answer 334

• When the July Crisis erupted, Italy was allied to its neighbour Austria-Hungary, but most Italians had little interest in fighting for it.
• On 3rd August 1914 Italy declared its neutrality with the support of most of the population.
• However, the prospect of joining the war on the other side was soon raised, and both the Entente and the Central Powers began to court the Italian government in hope of securing its allegiance.
• Irredentism motivated some interventionists, while others adopted pragmatic positions or embraced the rhetoric of a war for democracy; some placed the war in a wider imperial context right from the start, hoping to acquire as yet undefined territories beyond national borders

Question 335

What did Italy hope for when they joined the war in 1915?

Answer 335

Committing to join the Entente in pursuit of expansionist aims: it hoped both to complete national unification and to receive territorial compensation elsewhere.

Question 336

When did Italy declare its neutrality?

Answer 336

3rd August 1914

Question 337

What was the mutilated victory?

Answer 337

The feeling of injustice coined by the
nationalist writer Gabriele D’Annunzio, which
referred to Italians’ unconformity with the repartition of the territory set by the Paris Peace
Conference after the WWI.

Question 338

Why was the mutilated victory important in the coming years?

Answer 338

The concept was then extensively used in Mussolini’s discourses which continued to strengthen Italian nationalism and irredentist rhetoric, becoming a key point in Italian Fascist propaganda.

Question 339

Mutilated victory: What economic problems were there after the war?

Answer 339

• Huge sums of money had been borrowed from Britain and the USA and Italy was 85 BILLION LIRE in debt by 1919.
• The government however still had to print money to pay for the war effort which led to inflation.
• Prices quadrupled and inflation destroyed savings.
• The purchasing power of wages of factory workers also fell by about 25%.
• Although large industrialists had done well out of war production, once the war ended there was no longer any need for quantities of rifles, trucks and artillery and industrial profits therefore also declined.

Question 340

What had debt increased to by 1919?

Answer 340

85 billion lire

Question 341

What did prices increase by in 1919?

Answer 341

Prices quadrupled

Question 342

Mutilated victory: What did purchasing power of wages of factory owners fall by?

Answer 342

About 25%

Question 343

Mutilated victory: Why did industrial production decline?

Answer 343

Although large industrialists had done well out of war production, once the war ended there was no longer any need for quantities of rifles, trucks and artillery and industrial profits therefore also declined.

Question 344

Mutilated victory: What social problems were there after the war?

Answer 344

• Industrial disputes increased as workers resented long hours and a fall in wages.
• During 1919, over a million workers took part in strikes and membership of socialist trade unions shot up to 2 million by 1920.
• Unemployment was largely made up of returning soldiers with no jobs to go to and had risen to 2 million by 1919.
• Greater division between north and south.
• High number of casualties - anger and grief.

Question 345

Mutilated victory: What increased as workers resented long hours and falls in wages?

Answer 345

Industrial disputes

Question 346

Mutilated victory: How many workers took part in strikes during 1919?

Answer 346

Over a million workers

Question 347

Mutilated victory: What did membership of socialist trade unions increase to by 1920?

Answer 347

2 million

Question 348

Mutilated victory: What had unemployment risen to by 1919?

Answer 348

2 million - largely made up of returning soldiers.

Question 349

Mutilated victory: What political problems were there after the war?

Answer 349

• As the economy worsened, political divisions widened.
• Industrial workers flocked to the PSI whose membership rose from 50,000 in 1914 to about 200,000 by 1919.
• Inspired by the Russian Revolution of 1917, the PSI were now calling for social revolution and the overthrow of the Liberal state.
• By November 1919, the PSI had won 156 seats - this was now the single largest party in Italian parliament. This terrified many middle-class Italians who were disgusted that the Liberals appeared to be doing nothing about the socialist threat.
• Riots over spiralling bread prices occurred and shop keepers feared the government were doing nothing.
• In the countryside, peasants were occupying unfarmed land and claiming it for themselves and joining socialist trade unions. Landowners began to worry and blamed the government for doing nothing.
• Italy’s treatment at the Paris conference
• Orlando had to resign over mutilated victory
• Occupation of Fiume saw Liberals as weak

Question 350

Mutilated victory: Who flocked to the PSI?

Answer 350

Industrial workers

Question 351

Mutilated victory: What did PSI membership rise to from 1914-1919?

Answer 351

50,000 in 1914 to about 200,000 by 1919.

Question 352

Mutilated victory: Inspired by the Russian Revolution of 1917, what were the PSI now calling for?

Answer 352

Social revolution and the overthrow of the Liberal state.

Question 353

Mutilated victory: By November 1919, how many seats had the PSI won? What effect did this have?

Answer 353

156 seats - this was now the single largest party in Italian parliament. This terrified many middle-class Italians who were disgusted that the Liberals appeared to be doing nothing about the socialist threat.

Question 354

Mutilated victory: What were there riots over?

Answer 354

There were riots over spiralling bread prices - shop keepers feared the government were doing nothing.

Question 355

Mutilated victory: What was happening in the countryside?

Answer 355

Peasants were occupying unfarmed land and claiming it for themselves and joining socialist trade unions. Landowners began to worry and blamed the government for doing nothing.

Question 356

Mutilated victory: What was the disquiet and anger in Italian society made worse by?

Answer 356

Italy’s treatment at the Paris Peace Conference at Versailles in January 1919.

Question 357

When was the Paris Peace Conference in Versailles?

Answer 357

January 1919

Question 358

What happened at the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919?

Answer 358

Orlando, the new Prime Minister, argued Italy should be given all the territory they had been promised in the 1915 Treaty of London (southern Tyrol, Trentino, Istria and parts of Dalmatia) plus the port of Fiume on the Croatian Coast. Woodrow Wilson, David Lloyd George and Georges Clemenceau did not see Italy as deserving “great power” status. As a result Italy’s claim for Fiume and much of the Treaty were rejected as Italy contributions to the war were limited.

Question 359

What territory had Italy been promised in the Treaty of London in 1915?

Answer 359

Southern Tyrol, Trentino, Istria and parts of Dalmatia

Question 360

What arguments could Orlando have used at the Paris conference to try and gain more from the peace negotiations?

Answer 360

• Italy could’ve stayed neutral, but didn’t. Helped Britain, France and America.
• Needed territorial expansion to justify war effort to the population and avoid mass protest, anarchy and revolution.
• Claimed he faced assassination if he could not secure Dalmatia.
• Foreign minister, Sonnino feared failure would lead to anarchy, as violent clashes were already taking place.
• “I must have a solution. Otherwise I will have a crisis in parliament or in the street of Italy.” to David Lloyd George.

Question 361

How did the Paris Peace Conference end?

Answer 361

Orlando walked out of the peace conference which meant Italy gained very little in the final treaty as there was no one to represent their interests. As a result Orlando was forced to resign in June.

Trent, Trieste and Northern Dalmatia were gained from the Conference but the result was described as a “mutilated victory” by poet and novelist Gabriele D’Annunzio.

IT DEMONSTRATED THE WEAKNESS OF THE LIBERALS GOVERNMENT, ITS LACK OF GREAT POWER STATUS AND THAT 65,000 ITALIAN SOLDIERS HAD DIED FOR NOTHING.

Question 362

How would Mussolini see the mutilated victory?

Answer 362

• Would condemn it, annoyed that Italy won’t receive irredente lands.
• Wants to get more involved in politics and accumulate support.

Question 363

Context of the occupation of Fiume in September 1919

Answer 363

Against the backdrop of economic problems and political turmoil, nationalist right-wing groups challenged the government in Rome. Anger at the inadequacies of Liberal Italy, people spoke of establishing a powerful government that would assert Italy’s greatness.

Question 364

Why did Nationalists want Fiume?

Answer 364

Because of its 50% Italian speaking population.

Question 365

What did the USA think regarding Fiume in 1919?

Answer 365

That it should remain part of the newly created nation of Yugoslavia.

Question 366

When was the occupation of Fiume?

Answer 366

12th September 1919

Question 367

What happened on the 12th September 1919?

Answer 367

Gabriele D’Annunzio took 2,000 men made up of ex-soldiers, futurists, students and patriots and seized the contested port of Fiume.

Question 368

Why was the occupation of Fiume significant?

Answer 368

For many Italians, Fiume was the greatest example of Italy’s humiliating treatment at the Versailles conference. D’Annunzio presented the occupation as redemption for Italy’s dead soldiers.

Question 369

How did the government respond to the occupation of Fiume?

Answer 369

Scared of D’Annunzio’s popularity, the government failed to act for 15 months and only removed the occupying force on Christmas Day 1920.

Question 370

What lessons could Mussolini have gained from the occupation of Fiume?

Answer 370

• frailties of the Italian govt.
• success could be achieved through violent and decisive action.
• Treaty of Versailles could be changed if Italy simply took what was rightfully theirs (therefore Liberal Italy had been weak to accept it, needed a stronger government)
• power and popularity of assertive nationalism.