Challenges to and the fall of the Fascist State, c1935–46 Flashcards
Overall, how successful was Mussolini’s foreign policy in the Mediterranean between 1922 and 1932?
Quite successful - Yugoslavia recognised the Italian-speaking city of Fiume as being a part of Italy. Showed Mussolini as a great leader, who could achieve what the Liberal government had been unable to do. By 1926, had gained control and influence over Albania and undermined Yugoslavia.
Overall, how successful was Mussolini’s foreign policy in the Balkans between 1922 and 1932?
Failure - Mussolini left Corfu in September 1923, and had been forced to accept Italy’s position in relation to the greater powers of Britain and France and the League. Although did receive compensation and domestic support.
Overall, how successful was Mussolini’s foreign policy in North Africa between 1922 and 1932?
Despite slow progress, Italy did finally put down the Libyan rebellion in 1932. The Pacification of Libya was carried out brutally.
Why was Mussolini’s relationship with Britain, France and Germany highly complex?
Driven by the contrast between the realities of Italy’s military and diplomatic position and the aims of its foreign policy under Mussolini. The emergence of Germany under Hitler’s leadership would reshape international relations in Europe after 1933.
What was the Locarno Pact/Locarno Treaties?
Seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland, during 5 to 16 October 1925 and formally signed in London on 1 December, in which the First World War Western European Allied powers and the new states of Central and Eastern Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement.
This was a significant agreement that saw Germany take its place in the League of Nations and accept the pre First World War borders with Belgium and France, improving the relations between these nations.
What did Mussolini try to do, though unsuccessfully, during the Locarno Pact?
Tried to link Locarno to negotiations on Italy’s border with Austria.
How could Mussolini present the Locarno pact as a success to the Italian people?
As he had been part of such an important conference, it reflected Italy’s growing prestige in Europe.
Examples of agreement between Italy and BRITAIN
- Italy had historically had a good relationship with Britain.
- Mussolini was on good terms with the likes of Winston Churchill and foreign secretary Austen Chamberlain.
- The revaluation of the Lira was dependent on funding from Britain so Mussolini had to make sure he was diplomatic in dealings with Britain.
Why did Mussolini have to make sure he was diplomatic in his dealings with Britain?
The revaluation of the Lira was dependent on funding from Britain.
Examples of disagreement between Italy and BRITAIN
- The Mediterranean was dominated by Britain and would not allow any challenge to this.
- Italy was unable to stand up to Britain over the Corfu Incident in 1923.
- Mussolini tried to undermine British power by supporting pro-Italian groups in Malta.
Who dominated the Mediterranean?
Britain, who would not allow any challenge to this.
How did Mussolini try to undermine British power?
By supporting pro-Italian groups in Malta.
Overall, describe Britain and Italy’s relationship 1922-1935
- AMBIGUOUS - on the one hand, they had to be friendly with Britain BUT they also wanted to challenge Britain’s dominance in the Mediterranean.
- Mussolini wanted to win favour of Great Britain and France, and was careful not to antagonise them.
- Always looking to enhance his prestige at home.
Examples of agreement between Italy and FRANCE
Mussolini worked with the French to create the Locarno Pact.
Examples of disagreement between Italy and FRANCE
- The majority of antifascist exiles lived in France. The OVRA (Italian secret police) ran agents and operations in France.
- Mussolini saw France as a major rival in Africa and the Mediterranean.
- French controlled Tunisia had a large Italian speaking population and was worried about Italian intentions.
- Mussolini unsuccessfully looked into an anti-French alliance with Germany, Spain and Hungary.
Where did the majority of antifascist exiles live?
In France. The OVRA ran agents and operations in France.
Where did Mussolini see France as a major rival in?
Africa and the Mediterranean.
Why were France worried about Italian intentions?
French controlled Tunisia, which had a large Italian speaking population.
What did Mussolini unsuccessfully look at?
An anti-French alliance with Germany, Spain and Hungary.
Overall, describe France and Italy’s relationship 1922-1935
- Sees France as more of a rival in terms of power in the Mediterranean and also imperialist aims in North Africa.
- He knew he had to work with France but was MORE WILLING TO CHALLENGE THEIR POWER.
Examples of agreement between Italy and GERMANY
In his early years in power, Hitler was interested in building good relations with Italy as another fascist country.
Examples of disagreement between Italy and GERMANY
- Mussolini had little respect for Weimar Germany who he believed was run by socialists and pacifists.
- Mussolini was worried by Hitler coming to power as he was sure he would pursue the issue of Anschluss which may threaten Italian influence in the Balkans. Austria was also a buffer between Italy and Germany.
- Mussolini’s attempt to create the Four Power Pact to control Germany (Italy, Germany, France and Britain) was never ratified over the armaments issue.
- When Austrian Nazis attempted a coup Mussolini mobilised four divisions helping the coup to collapse. As a result Mussolini was seen to have halted the unification of Germany and Austria.
- Mussolini called Hitler a “muddle-headed fellow” and later he called him a “horrible sexual degenerate”.
What did Mussolini have little respect for regarding Germany?
Weimar Germany who he believed was run by socialists and pacifists.
Why was Mussolini worried about Hitler coming to power?
Mussolini was sure Hitler would pursue the issue of Anschluss which may threaten Italian influence in the Balkans. Austria was also a buffer between Italy and Germany.
What happened to Mussolini’s attempt to create the Four Power Pact to control Germany (Italy, Germany, France and Britain)?
It was never ratified over the armaments issue.
What did Mussolini do when Austrian Nazis attempted a coup?
Mussolini mobilised four divisions helping the coup to collapse. As a result Mussolini was seen to have halted the unification of Germany and Austria.
What did Mussolini call Hitler?
A “muddle-headed fellow” and later a “horrible sexual degenerate”. BAD RELATIONS.
Overall, describe Germany and Italy’s relationship 1922-1935
- Initially, Mussolini was worried by Hitler’s accession to power - what if Germany tried to unite with Austria?
- So Mussolini was willing to make pacts with Britain and France to stop Germany from gaining more power.
- BUT was willing to have Germany on its side as another fascist power.
What was the Stresa Front?
A conference between Britain, France, and Italy. Held at Stresa on Lake Maggiore in Italy, it proposed measures to counter Hitler’s open rearmament of Germany in defiance of the Versailles Peace Settlement.
What did Hitler openly announce in March 1935?
That Germany’s military rearmament had been going on secretly for two years. This, after the Nazi coup in Austria, added to Mussolini’s concern at the direction of Hitler’s policies.
What did the Stresa Front meeting lead to?
A statement declaring their desire for peace and continuing commitment to the League of Nations as well as disarmament.
Who was in the Stresa Front coalition?
- Italy
- France
- Britain
What was the impact of Italy’s growing colonial ambitions in Africa?
Mussolini claimed he had reached an implicit agreement with both France and Britain, to support Italy’s imperialist goals in Africa as trade-off for Italy’s anti-German stance. Britain and France interpreted this agreement differently though…
What was a turning point in Italy’s relations with other nations?
Mussolini’s colonial war in Abyssinia.
How did Britain undermine the Stresa Front?
Signing the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in 1935.
When did the Stresa Front start to collapse?
After Britain signed the Anglo-German Naval Agreement in June 1935.
Mussolini was mainly successful in achieving his foreign policy goals between 1922-1935. HFDYA?
- Largely been unsuccessful in the Balkans. Hadn’t been able to extend its sphere of influence.
- Mussolini as becoming increasingly aggressive in the Mediterranean and North Africa.
- His relationship with Britain and France was beginning to fracture by 1935.
- His relationship with Germany was tense. The Stresa Front opposed German re-armament and Mussolini had prevented Anschluss with Austria.
What was Abyssinia?
The last African country free of colonial rule.
Mussolini had planned to invade Abyssinia since…
1932
When did Mussolini communicate to civilian and military leaders the definite plans to invade Abyssinia?
In 1934.
When did Italy invade Abyssinia?
October 1935
Reasons for the Abyssinian Invasion: Helping the Italian economy
- The planning for war helped the economy. The need to produce more arms, clothing, equipment and transportation helped fuel the Italian industry.
- The invasion would help to achieve autarky, as Abyssinia would provide raw materials and areas for more agriculture.
- Abyssinia would provide an export market for Italian goods.
How would planning for the Abyssinian invasion help the economy?
The need to produce more arms, clothing, equipment and transportation helped fuel the Italian industry.
How would the Abyssinian invasion help achieve autarky?
Abyssinia would provide raw materials and areas for more agriculture.
What market would Abyssinia provide?
Abyssinia would provide an export market for Italian goods.
Reasons for the Abyssinian Invasion: Gaining domestic glory and prestige
- The invasion of Abyssinia was seen as a way of showing the dynamism of fascism and bringing about the transformation of the Italian people into more warlike people.
- An aggressive foreign policy would satisfy those in the PNF who thought Mussolini needed to pursue a more “fascist” direction (and show that his rule was more than simply a dictatorship trying to maintain power).
- Mussolini believed that a great victory would add to the prestige of the dictatorship. The Italian defeat by Abyssinia at Adwa in 1896 was still remembered by Italians: Mussolini believed that avenging this humiliating defeat would boost the cult of Il Duce.
The invasion of Abyssinia was seen as a way of showing the dynamism…
of fascism and bringing about the transformation of the Italian people into more warlike people.
Abyssinia invasion: What would an aggressive foreign policy do?
Satisfy those in the PNF who thought Mussolini needed to pursue a more “fascist” direction (and show that his rule was more than simply a dictatorship trying to maintain power).
Why did Mussolini believe that a great victory in Abyssinia would add to the prestige of the dictatorship?
The Italian defeat by Abyssinia at Adwa in 1896 was still remembered by Italians: Mussolini believed that avenging this humiliating defeat would boost the cult of Il Duce.
Who were Italians defeated by in 1896 that is remembered as a humiliating moment by Italians?
Defeat by Abyssinia at the Battle of Adwa.
Reasons for the Abyssinian Invasion: Alleviate problems at home
Domestic policies, such as the Corporate State, and the battle for births and grain, were producing disappointing results.
= Mussolini recognised that foreign success might distract public attention away from the problems at home.
Reasons for Abyssinia invasion 1935
- Gain domestic glory and prestige
- Help the Italian economy
- Enhance Italy’s great power status
- Alleviate problems at home
Reasons for Abyssinia invasion: Mussolini acting opportunistically
Mussolini recognised that the rise to power of the Nazis had transformed the European situation. Britain and France’s preoccupation with responding to Hitler’s foreign policy opened the way for Italian ambitions.
Reasons for Abyssinia invasion: Enhancing Italy’s great power status
- A growing empire would enhance Italy’s claim to be a great power.
- Mussolini believed the colonies were a part of Italy’s historic destiny. After all, Italy was the descendent of the Roman Empire that had controlled huge areas of North Africa and had dominated the Mediterranean.
- Abyssinia lacked the means to fight a modern war. This offered the prospect of securing military glory on the cheap.
- The neighbouring Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland provided convenient places from which to attack.
Abyssinia invasion: What would a growing empire enhance?
Italy’s claim to be a great power.
Why did Mussolini believe the colonies were part of Italy’s historic destiny?
Italy was the descendent of the Roman Empire that had controlled huge areas of North Africa and had dominated the Mediterranean.
Abyssinia lacked the means to fight a modern war. What did this mean for Italy?
This offered the prospect of securing military glory on the cheap.
What did the neighbouring Italian colonies of Eritrea and Somaliland provide?
Convenient places from which to attack.
3rd October 1935
Signalled the start of the second Italian-Abyssinian war. It was on this day that Italy invaded Abyssinia without a formal declaration of war.
What would the Abyssinian invasion lead to?
An outcome that would not only change the face of Africa, but the political rifts it caused between the fascist nations and the democratic nations would contribute to the beginning of the Second World War.
How did the invasion of Abyssinia signal the end of years of Italian frustration?
The Italians were angry and humiliated following the defeat at the hands of Abyssinia in the 1896 Battle of Adwa, which was the worst defeat ever inflicted on a European power in Africa.
How many Italian troops were killed at the Battle of Adwa?
6,000 Italian troops. The battle remained a painful memory in the Italian national consciousness.
Invasion of Abyssinia: During the 1920s, what had Mussolini done?
Brutally subjugate the existing Italian colonies of Libya, Somalia, and Eritrea, but national issues prevented him from invading Abyssinia, which formed a wedge between Italy’s East African colonies.
Invasion of Abyssinia: By 1934, what had Mussolini done?
Needing to distract the Italian people from the problems of the 1930s, Mussolini’s attention turned to the East African Kingdom. By 1934, he told his government to “prepare for the total conquest of Abyssinia.”
What gave Mussolini the excuse to invade Abyssinia in 1935?
The excuse for such an invasion came in December 1934 following a skirmish near an oasis at Wal Wal on the Abyssinian border.
Who was the leader of Abyssinia at the time of the invasion?
Haile Selassie
What did Haile Selassie do at the time of the Abyssinian invasion?
Called upon the League of Nations for arbitration but the League decided not to attribute blame to either side and to exonerate both nations of any wrongdoing - which was to prove a grim foreshadowing of the League’s handling of the entire Italian invasion.
Invasion of Abyssinia: Why were Britain and France unwilling to condemn Italy?
The reason for the League’s impotence stemmed from France and Britain’s hopes that by not punishing Italy, they could hope to gain Mussolini’s help in the impending war with Germany. (In 1934 Mussolini did not trust Hitler over Hitler’s plans to annex Austria, which bordered northern Italy and was led by Mussolini’s protege, Engelbert Dollfuss).
How did preparing for Abyssinian invasion provide Mussolini with renewed confidence?
He stepped up Italy’s rearmament programme. Particular attention was paid to the development and stockpiling of chemical weapons which had been used in Italy’s pacification of Libya.
How many Italian soldiers were dispatched to Abyssinia?
400,000 men, along with thousands of indigenous troops recruited in the Italian colonies serving to bolster Italian forces every further.
Three days after the invasion of Abyssinia, how had the same of Adwa been wiped out?
The aircraft of the Italian Royal Air Force bombed the town into submission.
Invasion of Abyssinia: On the other hand, what was the Ethiopian army like?
Made up of 500,000 men, only a quarter of which had military training and was futile in organisation with soldiers owning personal loyalty to individual warlords. Air Force was near non-existent and machine guns were scarce.
Alongside Italy launching a renewed offensive, Haile Selassie appealed again to the League of Nations. How did the League respond?
By condemning the Italian invasion. The majority of the League’s members voted to impose economic sanctions upon Italy. However the sanctions did not include a ban on OIL which was the one sanction that would’ve had a huge impact on Italy’s war effort.
Despite the League imposing economic sanctions on Italy, how did Italy respond?
Led to a wave of defiance across Italy and the population pledged their support to the conflict.
What did Britain and France try to do in an effort to maintain good relations with Italy?
Proposed a negotiated effort to the war, which greatly favoured the Italians.
The Hoare-Laval Pact.
What did the Hoare-Laval Pact propose?
Give Mussolini 2/3 of Abyssinia in return for a ceasefire. This drew immediate public condemnation, and was denounced by Ethiopians. Many in Britain and France saw the pact as doing a deal with “evil”.
Invasion of Abyssinia: A month into the invasion, who did Mussolini replace the head of the invading army, Emilio De Bono, with?
Marshal Pietro Badoglio
When were Italian forces able to finally meet the last Abyssinian army?
The Battle of the Ogaden. Over the next 10 days of bitter fighting, the last organised force between the invaders, and the Ethiopian capital, were defeated.
What happened on the 5th May 1936?
Badoglio’s victorious army entered the capital of Abyssinia, Addis Ababa, as the remaining inhabitants watched on solemnly.
What was a testament to the war’s popularity in Italy?
More than 30 million people packed the country’s piazzas for victory celebrations.
What happened to Haile Selassie after the Italian victory in Abyssinia?
He had managed to escape three days before and address the League of Nations on the invasion of his country. He remained in exile until Abyssinia was liberated by British and Allied forces in 1941.
When was Abyssinia liberated?
1941 - by British and Allied forces.
After Abyssinian invasion, what did Italy do regarding the League of Nations?
Withdrew its delegation from the League and formally left in 1937.
How did Hitler defy the League and take advantage of the Abyssinian crisis?
Reoccupied the Rhineland in March 1936.
Consequences of the Italian victory in Abyssinia? (from vid)
The Italian army had won a victory that Mussolini’s biographer, Renzo De Felice, described as the dictator’s masterpiece.
Consequences of the Italian victory in Abyssinia for Mussolini? (from vid)
For Mussolini, the war created a form of national consensus as he and his regime increased in popularity.
What did the Abyssinian invasion show about the League of Nations?
The campaign gave a clear demonstration to the world of the ineffectualness of the League of the Nations, which was to carry profound consequences as it undermined the ideas of collective security and propelled Mussolini into an ever-closer relationship with Adolf Hitler.
When did Mussolini launch his invasion of 400,000 men into Abyssinia?
October 1935, hoping for a quick and decisive victory.
Invasion of Abyssinia: What did the Italians quickly seize first?
Quickly seized Adwa and other border towns, but after that their progress slowed.
Describe how Badoglio conducted the war against Abyssinia
Badoglio engaged in a brutal war against the Abyssinian army in a similar manner to the campaign he had conducted in Libya. This included the use of mass aerial bombings, the murder of prisoners of war and the illegal use of chemical warfare.
How many Abyssinians died during the brutal Abyssinian war?
500,000 Abyssinians
When did Badoglio’s victorious army enter the capital of Abyssinia, Addis Ababa?
5th May 1936
Consequences of the Abyssinian Invasion for Italy: Successes
- It is estimated that around 20 millions Italians listened to Mussolini’s public radio broadcast on 9th May, proclaiming that Italy had at last gained its fascist empire.
- The League had placed limited economic sanctions on Italy, including banning weapons sales to Italy and placing limits on imports of Italian rubber and metal. However, oil was left off the list of products banned for export to Italy and the Suez Canal was not closed. (Had Britain chose to close this canal, Italy’s vital supply route its forces in East Africa would have been cut off).
- On 18th December 1935, the royal family launched the “Gold for the Patria (country)” campaign. Queen Elena presented her wedding ring to be melted down in order to help the campaign against the sanctions. Blessed by the Church, thousands of women followed the queen in giving their wedding rings to the fascist cause. In return, they were given steel rings that symbolised their marriage to the nation. This seemed to show that the true transformation of the Italian people was now taking place.
- Despite the League’s weak response, the sanctions were a propaganda coup for the fascists. Mussolini was portrayed as a leader standing up to the world and defying attempts to limit Italian power. This had strong parallels to the “mutilated victory”, but this time Italy would not back down.
- Hoare-Laval Pact of December 1935: this secret agreement between the foreign ministers of Britain and France would have handed over 2/3 of Abyssinia to Italy. However, a public outcry in Britain and France put an end to that agreement. It appeared to the Duce that the governments of both countries were desperate to avoid having Fascist Italy an enemy.
- The Italian people, the royal family and the Church all supported the invasion and proclaimed Mussolini’s greatness.
- Mussolini approved too many to be fulfilling the image of a new Caesar who was expanding the Italian empire. For Mussolini and for many Italians, Italy had now established herself as a great power.
Invasion of Abyssinia: What canal was not closed that was a failure from the League of Nations?
The Suez Canal
Invasion of Abyssinia successes: How many Italians listened to Mussolini’s public radio broadcast on 9th May, proclaiming that Italy had at last gained its fascist empire?
Around 20 million Italians
Invasion of Abyssinia successes (for Mussolini): How had the League placed limited economic sanctions on Italy?
They had banned weapons sales to Italy and placed limits on imports of Italian rubber and metal. However, oil was left off the list of products banned for export to Italy and the Suez Canal was not closed. (Had Britain chose to close this canal, Italy’s vital supply route its forces in East Africa would have been cut off).
Invasion of Abyssinia successes: On 18th December 1935, what did the royal family launch? What did this involve?
The “Gold for the Patria (country)” campaign. Queen Elena presented her wedding ring to be melted down in order to help the campaign against the sanctions. Blessed by the Church, thousands of women followed the queen in giving their wedding rings to the fascist cause. In return, they were given steel rings that symbolised their marriage to the nation. This seemed to show that the true transformation of the Italian people was now taking place.
Invasion of Abyssinia successes: How were the economic sanctions a propaganda coup for the fascists?
Mussolini was portrayed as a leader standing up to the world and defying attempts to limit Italian power. This had strong parallels to the “mutilated victory”, but this time Italy would not back down.
Invasion of Abyssinia successes: What was the Hoare-Laval Pact and how was it a success for Mussolini?
Hoare-Laval Pact of December 1935: this secret agreement between the foreign ministers of Britain and France would have handed over 2/3 of Abyssinia to Italy. However, a public outcry in Britain and France put an end to that agreement. It appeared to the Duce that the governments of both countries were desperate to avoid having Fascist Italy an enemy.
Invasion of Abyssinia successes: Who all supported the invasion?
The Italian people, the royal family and the Church all supported the invasion and proclaimed Mussolini’s greatness.
Invasion of Abyssinia successes: Who did Mussolini appear be fulfilling the image of?
Mussolini approved too many to be fulfilling the image of a new Caesar who was expanding the Italian empire. For Mussolini and for many Italians, Italy had now established herself as a great power.
Consequences of the Abyssinian Invasion for Italy: Failures
- As the war began, many Italians remained unenthusiastic, despite the orchestrated press campaign (initially doesn’t gain support).
- Despite Mussolini’s proclamation of the 9th May, Abyssinia had not been fully conquered. Two-thirds of the country was still to be occupied.
- The costs associated with supplying the 250,000 troops that were needed to fight an on-going guerrilla war were considerable.
- The hopes that the colony would provide oil and other raw materials to help achieve autarky were never met.
- The exports never materialised, with only 2% of Italian trade ever going to Abyssinia. Doesn’t help him in his quest for autarky.
- The lira devalued by 40% and the budget deficit rose from 2.5 billion to 16 billion lire.
- The brutal war changed the perception of Mussolini and fascism overseas, especially in Britain. Before, Mussolini was generally seen as a dictator who had been beneficial to Italy; now, he was seen as a threat to peace.
Invasion of Abyssinia failures: Did the war initially gain support?
No. As the war began, many Italians remained unenthusiastic, despite the orchestrated press campaign.
Invasion of Abyssinia failures: Despite Mussolini’s proclamation of the 9th May, what was the reality?
Abyssinia had not been fully conquered. Two-thirds of the country was still to be occupied.
Invasion of Abyssinia failures: What costs were considerable?
The costs associated with supplying the 250,000 troops that were needed to fight an on-going guerrilla war were considerable.
Invasion of Abyssinia failures: What hopes were never met?
The hopes that the colony would provide oil and other raw materials to help achieve autarky were never met.
Invasion of Abyssinia failures: What never materialised? What percentage of Italian trade actually went to Abyssinia?
The exports never materialised, with only 2% of Italian trade ever going to Abyssinia. Doesn’t help him in his quest for autarky.
Invasion of Abyssinia failures: What did the lira devalue by? What did the budget deficit rise from?
The lira devalued by 40% and the budget deficit rose from 2.5 billion to 16 billion lire.
Invasion of Abyssinia failures: How did the war change the perception of Mussolini? (especially in Britain)
Before, Mussolini was generally seen as a dictator who had been beneficial to Italy; now, he was seen as a threat to peace.
What did the invasion of Abyssinia highlight in the League of Nations? What did this lead to?
Highlighted the weakness of the League of Nations, which encouraged Hitler’s own ambitions. This in turn disrupted the delicate balance of power that existed in Europe.
Although not immediate, how was Abyssinia the beginning of a split in Italy’s relations with Britain and France? (they had been part of the Stresa Front)
Moved Italy closer to Germany. This was encouraged by economic problems caused by the League’s sanctions, which made Italy more dependent on Germany for trade.
The victory in Abyssinia appeared to Mussolini to show the weakness of Britain and France. What did this encourage in Italy?
A belief that Italy’s aggressive actions would not only enhance his own power domestically but challenge the old balance of power in Europe. This was a dangerous conviction that would see the fascist regime pursue a much more radical direction in both domestic and foreign policy.
After over a century of uprisings, what was Spain like in 1936?
A very divided nation, volatile. There were liberal republicans, monarchists, catholic conservatives, anarchists etc.
What group was Francisco Franco leader of?
The Nationalists (he’s another fascist)
Which country sent aid and weapons to Franco?
Italy and Germany - Franco was trapped in Spanish Morocco by the navy, who remained loyal to the Republic, and German and Italian planes were flown in to airlift his army over the straits of Gibraltar.
Spanish Civil War: Fascist dictators such as Hitler, Salazar and Mussolini, all sent aid, troops and weapons. What did this result in?
The civil war then became a testing ground for fascist troops, and became part of a wider international struggle: the fight between facsists, communists and liberals.
Spanish Civil War: Who signed an agreement of non-intervention?
Britain, France and USA
Spanish Civil War: Who sent weapons to the Republicans?
Soviet Union and Mexico, albeit inferior to the weaponry fascist governments were sending.
When did the Spanish Civil War start?
July 1936 - April 1939
When did the Spanish Civil War officially come to an end?
1st April 1939 and Spain was put under the brutal dictatorship of Franco
Who won the Spanish Civil War?
Franco
How did Italy get involved in the Spanish Civil War?
The Italian military intervention in Spain took place during the Spanish Civil War in order to support the nationalist cause against the Second Spanish Republic - involved on the side of FRANCO.
How would helping Franco in the Spanish Civil War enable Mussolini to achieve these aims?
- Great power status
- Empire in North Africa
- Control in the Mediterranean and the Balkans
- Having Franco on side could help Italy gain bases in the Balearic Islands.
- Britain and France would feel pressured to give Italy what she wanted, especially in North Africa.
- Italy would gain an ally in Spain, in the Mediterranean.
- Quick victory would keep the momentum of Abyssinia going, adding to the cult of Il Duce and creating loyal fascists.
Where had Mussolini hoped to gain naval bases?
Balearic Islands
How many planes were sent to assist Franco?
600
Which battle highlighted weaknesses in Italy’s military strength?
Battle of Guadalajara
How much did the Spanish Civil War cost Italy?
14 billion
Summarise Italian involvement in Spanish Civil War
In July 1936, Mussolini committed Italian troops to the Spanish Civil War on the side of General Franco who was leading the right wing forces against the Republican government who were backed by France and the USSR (although France not willing to help that much).
Intervention pushed Mussolini closer to Germany as he could no longer rely on trade with Britain.
From 1936, what was Italy’s relationship with Germany?
The central facet of Italian foreign policy.
What event in 1936 strengthened Mussolini’s view that Britain was weak?
March 1936, Hitler marched German troops into the demilitarised zone of the Rhineland, defying one of the key elements of the Treaty of Versailles. Neither the League, Britain or France made any real attempt to stop Hitler, which strengthened Mussolini’s view that Britain and France were weak.
What did Mussolini believe would happen by moving towards Germany?
May draw concessions on Africa and the Mediterranean from the British and French governments in order to draw him back to them.
What had the Abyssinian War shown Mussolini?
The domestic benefits a successful foreign war could have.
How many troops and planes did Mussolini send to fight in the Spanish Civil War?
Around 50,000 troops and 600 planes
How did the Spanish Civil War end?
Republican resistance finally collapsed in 1939 and General Franco was victorious thanks to help from his right-wing allies. However, the war had none of the positive consequences that Mussolini had hoped for.
Were Italian casualties high in the Spanish Civil War? How many killed and wounded?
Relatively high
3,266 Italian soldiers killed and around 11,000 wounded.
The Spanish Civil War led to severe disruptions in the Italian economy. How many lire did it cost? What was the effect on taxes?
Cost around 14 billion lire.
Required an increase in taxes for the Italian people.
What did the Spanish Civil War do to Italian trade relations?
Trade issues pushed Italy further towards further economic dependence on Germany.
Why was Spanish Civil War a failure for Italian territory?
Italy made no territorial gains as a result of supporting Franco.
Describe support for Spanish Civil War in Italy
Unlike Abyssinia, the intervention in Spain was not popular with the Italian people who didn’t see it bringing benefits to them or Italy.
What was a significant impact on the Spanish Civil War regarding the Italian army?
The Italian army was WEAKER in 1939 than it had been in 1936. This had been highlighted with the defeat of an Italian force by a Republican army made up of antifascist volunteers at the Battle of Guadalajara.
What was significant about Italian relations with Britain and France after the Spanish Civil War?
Italy’s relationship with Britain and France continued to deteriorate.
What did Britain and France not want regarding Italy and Germany?
They did not want Mussolini to become closer to Germany.
Closer Italian-German relations
1936-1939
What was the response in Britain when the Hoare-Laval pact came out in the press? What did this result in for Italy and Germany?
There was a public outcry and Eden, the new British foreign secretary was clear in his dislike for Mussolini. Public and political attitudes in Britain were becoming more anti Mussolini – pushing him towards Nazi Germany
What two events by Italy angered Britain?
- During the Spanish Civil War, Italian ships, pretending to be Spanish, sank neutral vessels in the Mediterranean which angered the British.
- In the summer of 1938 an Italian bombing raid on a Spanish port sunk 11 British ships.
1936-1939: Despite Britain increasingly disliking Mussolini, what were they still trying to do?
British were still trying to come to an agreement with Italy and signed a Gentleman’s Agreement in 1937 which preserved the status quo in the Mediterranean.
What did the British sign in 1937 which preserved the status quo in the Mediterranean?
A Gentleman’s Agreement
What did the British sign in 1937 which preserved the status quo in the Mediterranean?
A Gentleman’s Agreement
What was formed in 1936 that brought Italy and Germany closer together?
Rome-Berlin Axis
What was the Rome-Berlin Axis?
Coalition formed in 1936 between Italy and Germany. An informal agreement formulated by Italy’s foreign minister Galeazzo Ciano informally linking the two fascist countries was reached on October 25,
Why was Germany happy about the Rome-Berlin Axis?
To have Italy more economically dependent on her for exports.
What happened in September 1937?
Mussolini visited Hitler and was impressed by Nazism. This trip convinced him that Europe’s future should be fascist.
What happened in November 1937?
Italy joined Germany and Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact. In practice this was a declaration that these countries would work together against the Soviet Union (although the reality was that the Pact was also aimed against Britain).
Mussolini visits Hitler and is impressed with Nazism
September 1937
Italy join Germany and Japan in the Anti-Comintern Pact
November 1937
What was the Anti-Comintern Pact?
An anti-communist pact ostensibly directed against the Communist International (Comintern) but, by implication, specifically against the Soviet Union and Britain.
When did Mussolini withdraw from the League of Nations? What did the show?
December 1937
This showed Italy’s position as a nation who wished to overturn the Treaty of Versailles, and confirmed an end to the Stresa Front.
How was Italy’s weakness shown against Germany?
When Hitler began the process of Anschluss in March 1938 without consulting the Duce. This was a blow for Mussolini and showed Hitler to be the senior partner is their loose alliance.
Moreover, Mussolini did not stop Hitler invading Austria which was unpopular in Italy and damaged his prestige at home.
Hitler Anschluss in Austria
March 1938
Despite Italy having closer relationships with Germany, what was it still doing by 1938?
By 1938, Italy was still rejecting a full-scale military alliance with Germany and trying to negotiate a pathway between Britain and Germany.
Despite Mussolini still trying to negotiate a pathway between Britain and Germany, what happened at the Munich Conference? (that even Czechoslovakia and Soviet Union were not allowed into!)
Although he was portrayed as the peace maker at the Conference, he worked with the Germans and came to the conclusion that Britain and France were weak and that a future Europe should be dominated by Germany.
How did Mussolini make it clear in 1938 he intended to dominate the Mediterranean?
In November 1938, the Italian Parliament was recalled and Mussolini instructed it to demand the annexation of Nice, Corsica, and Tunisia from France.
1936-1939: On the domestic front, how ere the Italian people coping with the regime and Mussolini’s foreign policy? e.g working with Germany, wanting to invade the Mediterranean
The Italian people were becoming more disillusioned with the regime. The domestic and foreign policy direction that Mussolini was now taking was causing concern.
The quest for autarky meant that there were less consumer goods and living standards were in general decline.
Why was the quest for autarky bad for Italian people?
Meant that there were less consumer goods and living standards were in general decline.
Why was 1938 such an unpopular year for Mussolini?
- A highly unpopular policy was put in place to transfer Italian workers to Germany which seemed to confirm Italy’s subservience to Germany.
- Mussolini was now 55 and not the youthful dynamic dictator he was still trying to portray.
- He brought in anti-semitic decrees.
- Anschluss
What did Mussolini do in April 1939 in an attempt to restore his reputation at home and abroad, and give the Italian economy a boost?
Italian army invaded Albania
Italian army invaded Albania
April 1939
Why did Mussolini invade Albania in 1939?
Wanted to restore his reputation at home and abroad, and give the Italian economy a boost.
Why was the invasion of Albania in April 1939 a success?
- It was already a satellite state of the Italian’s, and victory was achieved without any major fighting.
- Italy could now use the invasion of Albania to show his power to Germany.
Why was the invasion of Albania in April 1939 a failure?
The invasion clearly showed the weakness of the Italian army with the army, navy and air force unable to work together and disorganised troops using weapons they had never been trained to use.
This invasion was another step in pushing Italy away from Britain and France.
When was the Pact of Steel?
May 1939
What was the Pact of Steel?
An alliance between Germany and Italy. Signed by Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini on May 22 1939, it formalised the 1936 Rome-Berlin Axis agreement, linking the two countries politically and militarily.
How did Italy and Germany confirm their alliance in May 1939?
The Pact of Steel - HIGH POINT OF ITALIAN-GERMAN RELATIONS
Pact of Steel: What did Mussolini realise his ambitions in the Mediterranean would need?
The support of Germany
Who drafted the details of the Pact of Steel? What did these details include?
The Germans drafted the details including a clause which committed Italy to support Germany if it chose to go to war. This went against all military alliances operated only in defensive purposes.
Pact of Steel May 1939: Who had concerns at signing such a pact?
Galeazzo Ciano, the foreign secretary, who made it clear Italy would not be ready for war until 1943 but was told by Ribbentrop that Germany had no intention of waging war before this date.
Pact of Steel 1939: What did Ribbentrop tell Ciano? (who made it clear that Italy would not be ready for war until 1943)
That Germany had no intention of waging war before 1943
Pact of Steel: What happened that made Italy now trapped in an extremely dangerous situation?
On 11th August 1939, Ribbentrop and Hitler told Ciano at a meeting in Salzburg that Germany was planning to attack Poland. He was horrified and disgusted – Italy was now trapped in an extremely dangerous situation (because the Pact of Steel had committed Italy to support Germany if it chose to go to war).
1936-1939: Examples of Italian/Mussolini’s strengths or successes
- Despite British disliking Mussolini, they were still trying to reach an agreement with Italy (signed Gentleman’s Agreement in 1937).
- Rome-Berlin Axis 1936
- Anti-Comintern Pact 1937 - began to cement alliances.
- Abyssinian Invasion - increased Mussolini’s popularity.
- Mussolini looked strong when he left the League of Nations.
- Portrayed as a peace maker at Munich Conference.
- Instructed Parliament to annex Corsica, Nice and Tunisia.
- Gained Albania (however the invasion did show the disorganised nature of the Italian army and pushed Italy further from Britain and France).
- Pact of Steel (could be considered a failure due to the terms of the pact).
1936-1939: Examples of Italian/Mussolini’s weaknesses or failures
- Hoare-Laval Pact - Eden was clear in his dislike for Mussolini, public outcry and political attitudes in Britain becoming more anti-Mussolini.
- Hitler beginning Anschluss in March 1938 without consulting Mussolini.
- Mussolini didn’t stop invading Austria - unpopular at home.
- Invasion of Abyssinia pushed him away from GB and FR - had long term consequences.
- Spanish Civil War was unpopular.
- Rome-Berlin Axis - made Italy dependent on Germany.
- Pact of Steel
- Withdrew from the League of Nations which confirmed an end to the Stresa Front.
- 1938 was an unpopular year for Mussolini - a highly unpopular policy was put in place to transfer Italian workers to Germany which seemed to confirm Italy’s subservience to Germany, Mussolini brought in anti-semitic decrees.
Overall, how successful was Italian foreign policy 1936-39?
Paragraph was on slide
WHEN DOES ITALY JOIN THE SECOND WORLD WAR?
June 1940
Which side did Italy join in June 1940?
After withholding formal allegiance to either side in the battle between Germany and the Allies, Benito Mussolini declared war on France and Great Britain and joined the side of Germany.
What was Italy looking for when joining the Second World War in June 1940?
To wage war in the Mediterranean and North Africa.
What was Italy’s entry into the war based on?
The idea of a “parallel war” and the Pact of Steel. Also, Germany had been performing well, so Italy might have thought she stood good chance.
Also didn’t want to betray Germany and not join them…
What was the idea of a “parallel war”?
Italy would concentrate on the Mediterranean and Northern Africa, while Germany would concentrate on northern, central and Eastern Europe.
By joining the war in June 1940, what had Mussolini hoped for?
A short war that would provide Italy with the spoils of war for very little cost.
Initially, when Italy joined the war in 1940, who was not supportive of this move?
Most Italians were not supportive of a war and neither was Hitler as he knew Italy wanted to gain territory at the expense of Germany taking all the risk. Hitler didn’t want Italy to take too much.
Italy in the Second World War FRANCE: What had France requested even before Italian troops had attacked French territory? (although they had tried to launch an offensive along the Alpine front but only got a few miles)
An armistice with Germany - 17th June 1940
Italy in the Second World War FRANCE: What territories did Mussolini demand from France?
Corsica (near Italy) and Somalia but was wary of pushing Italian claims without having done any actual fighting.
