The Fascist State 1925–40 Flashcards
1
Q
Mussolini and the Church
A
Mussolini and the Church
2
Q
What had Mussolini wanted to see regarding fascism? But what was wrong about his methods?
A
Mussolini wanted to see fascism penetrate every aspect Italian society. But he was neither systematic in his ideas nor prepared to force through policies that might make him unpopular.
3
Q
What huge, influential institution was a political threat to him?
A
The Church
4
Q
What had the first programme of the PNF called for?
A
The confiscation of all church property (1919) but Mussolini soon came to the realisation that fascism must compromise in order to secure support. This was particularly evident in his dealings with the Catholic Church after 1920.
5
Q
Mussolini and the church: So what happened when the PNF set out their new programme in 1920?
A
Mussolini declared that Catholicism could be used as a political force to drive Italian unity and nationalism.
6
Q
What did Mussolini publicly say in 1921?
A
That “fascism neither preaches nor practises anticlericalism…the only universal values that radiate from Rome are those of the Vatican.”
7
Q
By the time Mussolini became PM in 1922, what had he done?
A
Had moved away from his early, anti-Catholic views and had realised having a good relationship with the church would strengthen the fascists’ position.
8
Q
What helped Mussolini move away from his anti-Catholic views?
A
The death of Benedict XV. This was because his successor Pope Pius XI was predominantly concerned with the communist threat in Italy, and would therefore cooperate more with fascism.
9
Q
Who was Benedict XV replaced with which helped Mussolini?
A
Pope Pius XI
10
Q
What did Pope Pius initially see fascism as?
A
The antidote to the menace from the left and was happy to support Mussolini as Prime Minister.
11
Q
Was Pope Pius initially happy to support Mussolini as PM?
A
Yes
12
Q
Examples of policies Mussolini began to introduce that were favourable to the Catholic Church
A
- Reintroduced religious education to schools.
- Restored crucifixes to public buildings.
- The Vatican had a huge stake in the Bank of Rome and Mussolini guaranteed that his government would bail out the bank in January 1923.
- Banned freemasonry
- Banned anticlerical journals
- Tax exemption; dropped proposed policies on taxing church property.
13
Q
What did Mussolini do in his personal life that favoured the Church?
A
- Baptised his three children in the Catholic Church.
- Married his wife in a church ceremony.
14
Q
Why was allying with the Church favourable to Mussolini?
A
- Makes him look less radical and revolutionary.
- Removes a political threat
- Secured support for Mussolini.
15
Q
How were the Church an incredibly powerful institution?
A
Deeply involved in many aspects of Italian life, influenced customs and morality, especially in rural areas.
16
Q
What did all Mussolini’s supportive measures result in for the PPI?
A
Helped to undermine the PPI as the Pope had put his support behind the PNF instead of his own party.
Pius XI ordered the PPI leader, Luigi Sturzo to resign in 1923.
17
Q
When did Luigi Sturzo resign?
A
1923
18
Q
What was significant about Mussolini cooperating with the Church?
A
Mussolini was the first Italian leader to reach an agreement with the Catholic Church.
19
Q
After three years of negotiations, what was signed on the 11th February 1929 that officially ended the conflict between church and state that had existed since 1871?
A
The Lateran Pacts
20
Q
When were the Lateran Pacts signed?
A
11th February 1929
21
Q
What were the Lateran Pacts?
A
The Lateran Pacts were a concordat between the Holy See and the kingdom of Italy signed in 1929 in the Lateran Palace, Rome.
22
Q
What did the Lateran Pacts do?
A
- Officially ended the conflict between church and state that had existed since 1871.
- Declared the Roman question definitely and irrevocably settled.
These pacts were a huge, defining moment. Defined the relationship between the Church and Mussolini, signalling the end to the conflict since the 1870s - the Catholic Church had refused to recognised the legal and political legitimacy of unified Italy.
23
Q
The 1929 Lateran Pacts contained three sections. What were they?
A
- The Treaty of Conciliation (27 articles) which established Vatican City as an independent state, restoring the civil sovereignty of the Pope as a monarch.
- The Financial Convention annexed to the treaty (3 articles) which compensated the Holy See for loss of the papal states.
- The Concordat (45 articles), which dealt with the Roman Catholic Church’s ecclesiastical relations with the Italian State.
24
Q
What were key aspects of the Lateran treaty?
A
- The Pope agreed to recognise the Italian state and its possession of Rome and the old Papal states. In return, the state recognised the Pope’s control over the Vatican City (a sovereign state), part of Rome but independent from the Italian state.
- The Pope also received financial compensation of £30 million for surrendering his claim to Rome.
- Catholicism recognised as the sole religion of Italy – privileges like religious education, of a Catholic nature, would be compulsory in state schools.
- Catholic youth groups would be allowed to continue as long as they did not carry out any political activity. Catholic Action was the only non-fascist organisation allowed to continue.
- The state would pay the salaries of the clergy.
- There would be no divorce without the consent of the church.
- Concordat - church administration and religious structures would remain separate and independent from state institutions.
25
The Lateran Pacts: How much financial compensation did the Pope receive for surrendering his claim to Rome?
£30 million
26
The Lateran Pacts: What did the Pope agree to recognise?
The Italian state and its possession of Rome and the old Papal states.
In return, the state recognised the Pope’s control over the Vatican City (a sovereign state), part of Rome but independent from the Italian state.
27
What was the only non-fascist youth organisation recognised by the PNF?
Catholic Action
28
The Lateran Pacts: What did Pope receive?
Compensation for land lost during the Italian unification process.
29
Mussolini's concordat with the papacy
Concordat - church administration and religious structures would remain separate and independent from state institutions.
30
Were the Lateran Pacts a success?
In some respects, yes.
The problems between church and state appeared to have been solved.
* The Catholic Church saw it as a success as they had extended their role and influence throughout Italian life. It led to a religious revival as the numbers of Catholic marriages and schools increased.
* Mussolini had extended his prestige in Italy and abroad as he had solved the Roman question.
31
However, what was bad about the Lateran Pacts for Mussolini?
Showed the limits of Mussolini’s dictatorship.
32
Overall, what did the Lateran Pacts represent?
A kind of unsaid power-sharing agreement between the PNF and the Church that suited both institutions.
33
Examples of agreement between Mussolini and the Church
* Mussolini’s personal prestige increased as a result of the Lateran Pacts and he was admired by the Italian people for bringing an end to the Roman question.
* The Lateran Pacts showed the limitations of Mussolini’s dictatorship because of his cooperation with the Catholic Church.
* The Church supported Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia in 1935.
* In February 1932 Mussolini visited the Pope and both he and Pius XI confirmed their mutual views on societal and gender values and foreign policy towards the Soviet Union and communism.
* Mussolini helped save the nearly bankrupt Bank of Rome from going in to liquidation.
* The Church openly endorsed the fascist regime – it promised that it would mobilise support for the fascists in a plebiscite called by Mussolini in 1929 – Catholic Action appealed to voters to vote ‘yes’ in support of the Lateran Pacts.
34
Examples of disagreement between Mussolini and the Church
* The Church sponsored Catholic Action. This provided a rival to fascism’s own youth and leisure organisations and had 250,000 members. Given fascism’s totalitarian aims this was troubling for Mussolini.
* The Catholic church were very concerned with the idea of one being completely loyal to the state- this didn’t seem to leave room for an individual to also be a Catholic.
* Catholic youth organisations grew in popularity in the 1930s and had 388,000 members by 1939.
* The church felt strong enough to assert its position and in "Non Abbiamo Bisogno" (We have no need) the Pope condemned fascism’s attempt to steal children from Christ so that they would worship the state alone (after the state had tried to close down Catholic youth organisations in 1930).
* The resistance to fascism’s totalitarian claims to control every aspect of life was also shown by Radio Vatican which broadcast alternative news and information.
* The Church did not like girls’ involvement in physical activities of the fascist youth organisations – worried it went against gender roles. Fascist attitude to prostitution was also condemned.
* In 1931, Mussolini attempted to close down Catholic Action which led to the Pope publicly criticising Mussolini (We have no need) and although a compromise was reached (Catholic Action Youth groups could stay open as long as they did not organise sport/political activity), both sides were less trusting as a result of the event
* Pope Pius XI was openly critical of Mussolini’s anti-semitic decrees which he put forward in 1938. By 1938, the Fascists defined Judaism in biological terms and prohibited intermarriage with pure Italians – but this went against the Catholic Churches right to allow Jews to convert to Catholicism.
35
How was Mussolini's personal prestige increased as a result of the Lateran Pacts?
He was admired by the Italian people for bringing an end to the Roman question.
36
How did the Lateran Pacts show the limitations of Mussolini's dictatorship?
Because of his cooperation with the Catholic Church.
37
What did the Church sponsor that was problematic for Mussolini?
Catholic Action. This provided a rival to fascism’s own youth and leisure organisations and had 250,000 members.
Given fascism’s totalitarian aims this was troubling for Mussolini.
38
What idea were the Catholic Church very concerned with?
The idea of one being completely loyal to the state - this didn’t seem to leave room for an individual to also be a Catholic.
39
What invasion did the Church support?
Mussolini’s invasion of Abyssinia in 1935.
40
How many members did Catholic youth organisations have by 1939?
Catholic youth organisations grew in popularity in the 1930s and had 388,000 members by 1939.
41
The Church felt strong enough to assert its position. In Non Abbiamo Bisogno (We have no need), what did the Pope condemn?
The Pope condemned fascism’s attempt to steal children from Christ so that they would worship the state alone (after the state had tried to close down Catholic youth organisations in 1930).
42
How did Radio Vatican show resistance to fascism's totalitarian claims in controlling every aspect of life?
It broadcast alternative news and information.
43
In February 1932, Mussolini visited Pope Pius XI which confirmed their mutual views on what?
* Societal and gender values.
* Foreign policy towards the Soviet Union and communism.
44
When did Mussolini visit the Pope which confirmed some mutual views?
February 1932
45
How did Mussolini help save the Church?
Mussolini helped save the nearly bankrupt Bank of Rome from going in to liquidation.
46
How did the Church openly endorse the fascist regime?
* It promised that it would mobilise support for the fascists in a plebiscite called by Mussolini in 1929.
* Catholic Action appealed to voters to vote 'yes’ in support of the Lateran Pacts.
47
What did the Church not like regarding females?
* The Church did not like girls’ involvement in physical activities of the fascist youth organisations – worried it went against gender roles.
* Fascist attitude to prostitution was also condemned.
48
What did Mussolini attempt to do in 1931 which angered the church?
Attempted to close down Catholic Action which led to the Pope publicly criticising Mussolini (We have no need) and although a compromise was reached (Catholic Action Youth groups could stay open as long as they did not organise sport), both sides were less trusting as a result of the event.
49
When did Mussolini attempt to close down Catholic Action?
1931
50
What was Pope Pius openly critical of?
Mussolini’s anti-semitic decrees which he put forward in 1938. By 1938, the Fascists defined Judaism in biological terms and prohibited intermarriage with pure Italians – but this went against the Catholic Churches right to allow Jews to convert to Catholicism.
51
THE CHURCH: Weakness of the fascist state/Mussolini
* Mussolini wanted to see fascism penetrate aspects of society, but he was not systematic in his ideas and didn't want to force through policies that might make him unpopular.
* The Lateran Pacts showed limits of his dictatorship.
* Catholic Action existed - provided rival organisation to Mussolini.
* State tried to close down Catholic Youth groups which weakened relationship.
* Critical L'Osservatore Romano - criticised the fascist state so was a problem.
* Mussolini's anti-semitic decrees caused a huge breakdown in relations.
52
Strengths of the fascist state/Mussolini
* Mussolini realised that fascism must compromise in order to secure support.
* Adapting e.g Mussolini set out New Programme in 1920 declaring Catholicism could be used as a political force.
* Mussolini introduced policies favourable to the Catholic Church - helped to undermine PPI as more support was given to the PNF.
* The Lateran Pacts - Mussolini extended prestige and solved the Roman questioned. Admired by Italian people.
53
Describe relationship between Mussolini and the Church from 1923-28
* Mussolini moved to improve relations with the Church - both sides gained significantly from not entering into open confrontation.
54
Describe relationship between Mussolini and the Church from 1929-30
* A seminal moment was the Lateran Pacts. Increased Mussolini's popularity and strength so he's in a far stronger position by the 1930s.
55
Describe relationship between Mussolini and the Church from 1931-40
* No longer needs the church in the same way he did - starts to flash with the Church.
* Greater tensions emerging.
56
What were the benefits of the Lateran Pacts?
Victory for Mussolini
* ended more than 60 years of conflict between Church and State.
* Vast majority of Italians supported Mussolini.
* Reduced Catholic anti-fascist activity.
* In reality, he hadn't made that many concessions, particularly concessions that would actually affect him.
* Church no longer a threat to his political position in Italy by the 1930s.
* Brought Mussolini prestige at home and abroad.
Led the Church to outwardly support the state
* Mussolini was an effective leader and the Church saw him as an effective answer for stability. Wanted to protect catholicism from socialism.
* Church and Mussolini clearly had shared values e.g social stability and order.
57
How did the Church actively participate in fascism?
* Priests participated in ONB.
* Priests and state officials cooperated in certain campaigns.
* "For Pope and Duce" - unity.
* Also agreed in support for Franco and invasion of Abyssinia.
58
Despite the fact that some Priests were supportive of fascism, what happened in 1930?
There were 300 priests who supported a protest letter condemning the archbishop of Milan for openly supporting the fascist regime.
59
You could argue: What does the nature of fascism suggest?
The nature of fascism means it cannot realistically co-exist alongside something as all-consuming and powerful than religion.
60
Clash 1 between Church and Mussolini
Suppression of Catholic Action by the fascist government. The pope criticised this in foreign and domestic newspapers, particularly in his own papal newspaper "L'Osservatore Romano". This was entitled "Non Abbiamo Bisogno" - "We have no need."
61
Clash 2 between Church and Mussolini
Critical use of L'Osservatore Romano, which had domestic and international readership. The pope had considerable autonomy unlike other edits in fascist Italy. They moved this publication of the newspaper to inside the Vatican so it couldn't be attacked by fascist thugs in the way it could be attacked in other newspapers.
62
What did circulation of L'Osservatore Romano rise to during WW2?
More than 350,000 copies (it was only Italian newspaper which published the Allies' war reports).
63
Clash 3 between Church and Mussolini
Breakdown over anti-semitism (although the Church never organises effective action against the anti-semitic decrees Mussolini uses in Italy - the Pope only verbally condemns).
64
Why didn't the Pope do more with anti-semitic decrees Mussolini was using?
* By the 1930s, the pope and church held a relatively weak position in Italy over popularity of Mussolini.
* There was some anti-semitism within Catholic Church itself, so difficult to radically change the course of path of agreement in that sense.
* Received bad advice, was informed by key advisors that some Jews were aligned with socialism.
* Old age - not prepared to take on this campaign?
65
What was one of the key reasons for the decline of Liberal Italy?
Its foreign policy (e.g. the "mutilated victory" after WWI).
66
From the very beginning of his rule, what did Mussolini do which contrasted with the Liberal governments before him?
He backed up strong rhetoric with aggressive action.
67
Why were Mussolini's foreign policy successes among his most popular actions as dictator?
The idea that Mussolini was standing up for Italy and claiming its rightful place as one of the world’s "great powers" was extremely popular.
68
What was Mussolini able to do until the mid 1930s? (when foreign policy became more aggressive)
Mussolini was careful to develop strong relations with Europe’s recognised powers, such as Britain, to strengthen Italy’s international standing.
69
Behind Mussolini's strong rhetoric, what was the crucial problem?
Italy’s weak military position - and so Mussolini’s grand claims were often softened by what was realistically possible.
70
Why is defining long-term goals for Mussolini's foreign policy difficult?
His actions tended to be erratic and opportunistic, often aiming to maximise his prestige and popularity rather than achieving material gain for the country.
71
What was Mussolini's key goal in his foreign policy?
To assert Italy’s position as a world power. In Mussolini’s words, "to make Italy great, respected and feared".
72
List 4 of Mussolini's foreign policy aims.
* Stand up for Italy’s territorial claims and, where possible, revising the Versailles settlements to overcome the shame of the "mutilated victory".
* Africa: consolidate Italy’s rule in Libya and expand Italian imperialism in other parts of Africa.
* Assert greater power for Italy in the Mediterranean, which Mussolini believed was unfairly dominated by Britain.
* Gain the Balkans (area of south-eastern Europe including Greece, Albania and Yugoslavia) as an Italian "sphere of influence".
73
Ultimately, what did Mussolini hope from Italians?
Hoped Italians would be transformed into a more militant, aggressive race who would claim Italy’s position as a dominant European power and achieve the expansion of Italy’s spazio vitale (living space).
74
Although what can be said about Mussolini's foreign policy compared to Liberal Italy?
A desire for Great Power status, spending more on the military and colonial adventures had all been features of Liberal foreign policy – Mussolini didn’t necessarily have new aims, but would pursue them much more ambitiously, relentlessly and recklessly
75
How did Mussolini's foreign policy approach change from 1920s to late 1930s?
1. 1920s: while the fascists were consolidating their power, Mussolini was much more cautious e.g. willing to compromise with Britain and the League of Nations.
2. Early/mid 1930s: concerned about Hitler’s rise to power and the actions of this much more militant Germany, Mussolini looked to Britain and France to join him in an alliance that would restrict Hitler’s foreign policy aims.
3. Mid/late 1930s: as fascism consolidated and became much more aggressive, Mussolini’s foreign policy brought him into conflict with Britain and the League of Nations, leading to a growing relationship between Hitler and Mussolini.
76
Who had Italy had sour relations with 1912? Why?
Relations between Greece and Italy had been sour since 1912, when Italy had claimed the Dodecanese Islands, leading to long international discussions about the territory.
77
What happened on August 27th 1923?
An Italian general, Enrico Tellini, and four of his staff were assassinated in Greece. They had been working for the international boundary commission set up under the terms of the peace settlement and were advising on the precise location of the Greek-Albanian boundary.
78
When was Enrico Tellini and four of his staff assassinated in Greece?
August 27th 1923
79
After Enrico Tellini was assassinated, what did Mussolini do?
Mussolini blamed the Greek government for financing or even carrying out the assassination, and demanded a full apology, together with 50 million lire in compensation.
Otherwise, the Italian army would invade Corfu, a Greek island.
80
31st August 1923
Italy bombarded Corfu without warning and occupied the island
81
Italy bombarded Corfu without warning and occupied the island.
31st August 1923
82
How was the Corfu incident 1923 a failure?
* The League of Nations demanded that Mussolini end the occupation of Corfu. Britain, with its strong Mediterranean fleet, backed the League’s decision.
* Mussolini’s decision was shaped by the reality of Italy’s position, with the head of the navy informing Mussolini that Italy’s navy would barely last 48 hours if Britain decided to act.
* Mussolini had little choice but to agree with the League’s decision. On 27 September, Italy left Corfu.
* Mussolini did not receive the full apology from the Greek government that he had demanded.
* Internationally: Mussolini had faced opposition from the League and had been forced to accept Italy’s position in relation to the greater powers of Britain and France. Mussolini was much more careful through the 1920s, and didn’t repeat this aggressive foreign policy.
83
How was the Corfu incident 1923 a success?
* Mussolini’s actions were celebrated by Italian nationalists and many within the elite elements of Italian politics, including the head of the navy.
* Italy did receive the 50 million lire from Greece that they had demanded.
* Domestically: Mussolini had shown he was a dynamic ruler willing to engage in decisive action to stand up for Italy’s national pride. This was a marked contrast with the perceived weakness of the previous Liberal governments and helped cement his power in Italy.
84
Corfu Incident: Who celebrated Mussolini's actions?
Italian nationalists and many within the elite elements of Italian politics, including the head of the navy.
85
Who demanded that Mussolini end the occupation of Corfu?
The League of Nations and Britain (with its strong Mediterranean fleet) backed the League of Nations.
86
Corfu Incident: What was Mussolini's decision to leave Corfu shaped by?
The reality of Italy’s position, with the head of the navy informing Mussolini that Italy’s navy would barely last 48 hours if Britain decided to act.
87
When did Italy leave Corfu?
27th September 1923 - less than a month after invading.
Mussolini had little choice but to agree with the League’s decision.
88
Although the Corfu incident can be seen as a failure, what did Mussolini still receive?
The 50 million lire from Greece they had demanded. Although did not receive the full apology from the Greek government that he had demanded.
89
Domestically, how was the Corfu Incident a success?
Mussolini had shown he was a dynamic ruler willing to engage in decisive action to stand up for Italy’s national pride. This was a marked contrast with the perceived weakness of the previous Liberal governments and helped cement his power in Italy.
90
How was the Corfu incident a failure"?
Internationally: Mussolini had faced opposition from the League and had been forced to accept Italy’s position in relation to the greater powers of Britain and France. Mussolini was much more careful through the 1920s, and didn’t repeat this aggressive foreign policy.
91
Overall, was the Corfu Incident a success or failure?
Failure
92
January 1924
Yugoslavia recognised the Italian-speaking city of Fiume as being part of Italy.
93
Who recognised the Italian-speaking city of Fiume as being part of Italy in January 1924?
Yugoslavia
94
Success Yugoslavia: Given Fiume's significance in respect to the historical memory of d'Annuzio's occupation of the city, what was this diplomatic success?
A very popular achievement by Mussolini.
95
Success Yugoslavia: What did Yugoslavia recognising Fiume as a state mean for Mussolini?
Seemed to again show Mussolini as a leader who could achieve what the Liberal government had been unable to.
96
Failure of Yugoslavia: Why was Fiume's significance only really symbolic?
Yugoslavia no longer needed Fiume as they had constructed a greater port at Split.
97
Failure of Yugoslavia: What did Yugoslavia make Italy recognise in return for giving up Fiume?
In return for giving up Fiume, Yugoslavia made Italy recognise Yugoslavian rule at Susak, another disputed area.
98
Failure of Yugoslavia: Why could it been as a failure?
As with Corfu, there were no real material gains or achievements for Italy internationally.
99
How was Mussolini's success over Fiume persuading?
That Yugoslavia could be pushed around; he was keen to demonstrate to this new state that Italy was the dominant power in the region.
100
What happened in 1924 with Ahmed Zog? How did the Fascists respond?
In 1924, an Italian-sponsored local chieftain, Ahmed Zog, managed to take power in Albania on Yugoslavia’s southern border. The Fascist government supplied Zog with money, encouraged Italian companies to invest in Albania and employed Italian officers as advisers to the Albanian army. By 1926, Albania was little more than an Italian satellite state.
101
What did Italy's investment in Albania lead to for Yugoslavia?
* This extended Italian influence in southeastern Europe at the expense of Yugoslavia.
* Mussolini also undermined Yugoslavia by funding ethnic minorities, such as the Croats, who wanted to break away from Yugoslavia.
* In 1934, Croatian terrorists, financed by Italian fascists and provided with a training base in Italy, assassinated the Yugoslavian king.
102
What happened in Yugoslavia 1934?
Croatian terrorists, financed by Italian fascists and provided with a training base in Italy, assassinated the Yugoslavian king.
103
How did Yugoslavia respond to Italy-Yugoslavia relations?
Yugoslavia responded by doing its best not to antagonise Italy, but also refused to be intimidated into subservience.
104
Why were the Locarno Treaties seen as a success for Mussolini?
Although Italy did not get concessions on its borders with Austria, Mussolini was happy to work with the European powers and Italy seemed to be seen as a major European power, contributing to Mussolini’s popularity in Italy.
105
What were the Locarno Treaties?
The Locarno Treaties were seven agreements negotiated at Locarno, Switzerland, during 5 to 16 October 1925 and formally signed in London on 1 December, in which the First World War Western European Allied powers and the new states of Central and Eastern Europe sought to secure the post-war territorial settlement.
A conference of representatives from Britain, France, Germany and Italy was held at Locarno in Switzerland to ease tensions in Europe and settle border disputes. Germany was able to take its place in the League of Nations and accept its borders with France and Belgium.
106
What did Mussolini continue in Libya? (an attempt started by the Liberals)
The "Pacification of Libya", an attempt started by the Liberals to end the Libyan rebellion against Italian colonial rule.
107
How did Mussolini carry out the "Pacification of Libya"?
Mussolini used brutal methods, such as the use of poison gas, starvation, mass execution and the use of concentration camps.
Around a third of Libya’s population were either killed or starved to death, including 40,000 who died in, or while being transported to, concentration camps.
108
How much of Libya's population were killed or starved to death during Mussolini's campaign?
Around a third of Libya’s population were either killed or starved to death, including 40,000 who died in, or while being transported to, concentration camps.
109
Despite slow progress throughout the 1920s, when did Italy finally put down he Libyan rebellion?
1932 - but the details of this policy were mostly kept quiet in the press.
110
Anti-semitic decrees: Prior to 1937, what was attitude to Jews like?
There had been little to no anti-semitic rhetoric before 1937, and Italian fascism had no particular focus on race.
111
Anti-semitic decrees: What examples are there of Jews being integrated into Italian life prior to 1938?
* Many Jews had joined the Fascists.
* Mussolini had appointed a Jewish finance minister in 1932, 𝗚𝘂𝗶𝗱𝗼 𝗝𝘂𝗻𝗴, and Interior Undersecretary 𝗔𝗹𝗱𝗼 𝗙𝗶𝗻𝘇𝗶.
* Had a Jewish mistress.
* About 50,000 Jews in Italy.
* Hundreds of Jewish refugees moved to Italy.
* In 1938, 10,000 were members of the PNF.
* Mussolini criticised Hitler's antisemitism.
112
What two Jewish Ministers had Mussolini appointed before the anti-semitic decrees?
* Finance Minister - Guido Jung, appointed in 1932
* Interior Secretary - Aldo Finzi
113
Anti-semitic decrees: How many Jews were in Italy prior to 1937?
About 50,000
114
Anti-semitic decrees: In 1938, how many Jews were actually members of the PNF?
10,000
115
Anti-semitic decrees: Despite having Jews integrated in Italian life, what was still happening?
* Some Fascists, e.g Farinacci were antisemitic.
* Mussolini occasionally made antisemitic comments. These were "ideological racism", i.e criticising Jews for their beliefs or actions
116
Summarise Jews in Italy before 1938
Initially there was very little antisemitism in either Italy or the Fascist party. Italian Jews made up 1% of the population and most were deeply integrated into Italian life and there was no "Jewish problem". For 16 years, Jews had received the same benefits and restrictions from the Fascist government as other Italians.
117
What did did Mussolini introduce in 1938?
ANTI-SEMITIC LEGISLATION
118
What did the anti-semitic decrees state?
Jews were forbidden from:
* marrying non-Jews
* holding public office jobs e.g teaching and civil service
* owning more than 50 hectares of land
* running a business with more than 100 employees
* No Jewish children in state schools
* Jews not allowed to own large firms
* Jews not to have Aryan servants
* Foreign Jews expelled
119
Why did Hitler pass anti-semitic decrees in 1938?
Although there is no evidence that Hitler pressurised Mussolini to implement anti-semitic policies, it possible that Mussolini was influenced by anti-semitic policies in Germany, reflecting his subservience to Hitler?
𝗠𝗼𝗿𝗲 𝗶𝗺𝗽𝗼𝗿𝘁𝗮𝗻𝘁𝗹𝘆, 𝗠𝘂𝘀𝘀𝗼𝗹𝗶𝗻𝗶 𝘀𝗲𝗲𝗺𝘀 𝘁𝗼 𝗵𝗮𝘃𝗲 𝗯𝗲𝗹𝗶𝗲𝘃𝗲𝗱 𝘁𝗵𝗮𝘁 𝗮 𝗵𝗮𝗿𝘀𝗵𝗲𝗿 𝗽𝗼𝗹𝗶𝗰𝘆 𝘁𝗼𝘄𝗮𝗿𝗱𝘀 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗝𝗲𝘄𝘀 𝗶𝗻 𝗜𝘁𝗮𝗹𝘆 𝘄𝗼𝘂𝗹𝗱 𝗵𝗲𝗹𝗽 𝗰𝗿𝗲𝗮𝘁𝗲 𝗮 𝗺𝗼𝗿𝗲 𝗺𝗶𝗹𝗶𝘁𝗮𝗿𝗶𝘀𝘁𝗶𝗰 𝗻𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻, 𝘂𝗻𝗶𝘁𝗲𝗱 𝗶𝗻 𝗶𝘁𝘀 𝗵𝗮𝘁𝗿𝗲𝗱 𝘁𝗼𝘄𝗮𝗿𝗱𝘀 𝗯𝗼𝘁𝗵 𝗶𝗻𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗻𝗮𝗹 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗲𝘅𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗻𝗮𝗹 𝗲𝗻𝗲𝗺𝗶𝗲𝘀. 𝗛𝗲 𝗮𝗹𝘀𝗼 𝗯𝗲𝗹𝗶𝗲𝘃𝗲𝗱 𝘁𝗵𝗮𝘁 𝗜𝘁𝗮𝗹𝗶𝗮𝗻𝘀 𝗻𝗲𝗲𝗱𝗲𝗱 𝘁𝗼 𝗱𝗲𝘃𝗲𝗹𝗼𝗽 𝗮 "𝗿𝗮𝗰𝗶𝗮𝗹" 𝗺𝗲𝗻𝘁𝗮𝗹𝗶𝘁𝘆 𝘁𝗵𝗮𝘁 𝗴𝗮𝘃𝗲 𝘁𝗵𝗲𝗺 𝗮 𝘀𝗲𝗻𝘀𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝘀𝘂𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗶𝗼𝗿𝗶𝘁𝘆 𝗼𝘃𝗲𝗿 𝗳𝗼𝗿𝗲𝗶𝗴𝗻 𝗿𝗮𝗰𝗲𝘀 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝘁𝗵𝗲𝗶𝗿 𝗮𝗯𝗶𝗹𝗶𝘁𝘆 𝘁𝗼 𝗰𝗼𝗻𝗾𝘂𝗲𝗿 𝗮 𝗱 𝗿𝘂𝗹𝗲 𝗼𝘁𝗵𝗲𝗿 𝗻𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻𝘀. 𝗖𝗼𝘂𝗹𝗱 𝗯𝗲 𝘀𝗲𝗲𝗻 𝗮𝘀 𝗽𝗮𝗿𝘁 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗴𝗲𝗻𝗲𝗿𝗮𝗹 𝗿𝗮𝗱𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗹𝗶𝘀𝗮𝘁𝗶𝗼𝗻 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗽𝗲𝗿𝗶𝗼𝗱.
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Summarise the reasons for Mussolini's anti-semitic decrees
* Mussolini's desire to emulate Hitler, strengthen the axis
* Development of racist feelings during the Abyssinian campaign
* Jews involved in some opposition groups, such as the Rosselli brothers who were part of anti-fascist opposition
* Internal pressure from Fascist radicals e.g Farinacci
* Implicit in fascism as it developed in the 1930s and became more radical, with the Reform of Customs.
* Greater attempt to create the "Fascist man" and hostility to bolshevism, internationalism and materialism associated with Jews.
Partly imitation of Nazi Germany but more of an attempt to eradicate the vestiges of earlier values and customs to transform the Italian people.
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What were the effects of anti-semitic measures?
* Resented by many, seen as Mussolini kowtowing to Hitler.
* Along with the Reform of Customs, turned many influential Italians against the regime.
* Pope publicly critical; King privately.
* German occupation in 1943 led to 9000 Jews being sent to extermination camps.
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What was the significance of the anti-semitic decrees passed in 1938?
* Showed how Mussolini was coming under German influence
* Show radicalisation of Fascist regime in the late 1930s
* Contributed to declining support of Mussolini
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What were the Reform of Customs?
An ideological campaign, aimed at transforming the Italian people into a radicalised society ready for war.
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When were the Reform of Customs introduced?
In the late 1930s, at the same time as anti-semitic decrees
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What did the Reform of Customs do?
Aimed to transform the Italian people into a radicalised society:
* civil servants forced to wear uniforms
* the army adopted the goose step (Mussolini had come across this in Germany and believed it made the army look more imposing)
* Italians forbidden from shaking hands and instead had to greet each other with a straight armed "Roman salute"
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Together, what did the anti-semitic decrees and the Reform of Customs do?
Illustrated how the regime was losing touch with the Italian people by the late 1930s and contributed to the feeling of disillusionment with the fascist regime.
The attempt to unite the country with this was a considerable FAILURE. It lost the support of the Church, business and judiciary, and made others concerned about the increasingly radical policy the PNF seemed to be pursuing.
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Domestic tensions: What was becoming more prominent in the late 1930s?
Unrest within the regime. The euphoria of Abyssinia had only been short term and the domestic and foreign policy direction of the fascists was heightening concern among the population.
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Domestic tensions: What are the three factors that show why there were domestic tensions in the late 1930s?
* Problems caused by foreign policy
* Economic problems
* Other domestic problems e.g Mussolini was older
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What problems caused by foreign policy caused domestic tensions?
* The Anschluss made many Italians fearful.
* A new commercial treaty between Italy and Germany (February 1939) led to one of Mussolini's most hated policies. Italian workers were transferred to Germany, with 500,000 being transferred by 1945. These Italian workers were often treated poorly by the Germans, who looked down on them. To many, this confirmed Mussolini's weakness compared to Hitler.
* The 1938 anti-semitic policies were resented by the majority of the Italian people who had little to no history of anti-semitism. The Pope condemned these policies as an attempt to copy Nazi Germany.
* The "reform of customs" was unpopular, and ridiculed as a pointless exercise simply copied off the Germans. Most chose to ignore it.
* Anti-semitic policy and the "reform of customs" were seen as a worrying sign of Italy's growing weakness and subordination to German policy.
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Due to one of Mussolini's policies passed in February 1939, where Italian workers were transferred to Germany, how many Italians had been transferred to Germany by 1945?
500,000
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Domestic tensions: ECONOMIC PROBLEMS
* Between 1935 and 1939, increased military spending accounted for around 80% of the growing deficit.
* There was a squeeze on middle-class incomes and savings to pay for growing government spending.
* The attempt to achieve autarky meant many consumer goods became more expensive (as Italian industry produced goods that would have been cheaper to purchase from abroad).
* Italy's economy became increasingly reliant on Germany.
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Between 1935 and 1939, what did increased military spending account for?
80% of the growing deficit.
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Domestic tensions: OTHER DOMESTIC PROBLEMS
* The Battle for Grain led to worsening diet among the Italian population.
* Mussolini was 55 and had been in power for 17 years by 1939; the images of the youthful, dynamic dictator as portrayed in the cult of Il Duce was becoming harder to sustain.
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By 1939, these domestic tensions should not be exaggerated. Why is this?
* There is no evidence that antifascist groups were growing.
* The police was still functioning effectively.
* Mussolini was still popular even if the Fascist party itself was not.
* By 1939, there was a whole generation of Italians who had grown up with no other leader, and so saw no alternative to the Fascist regime.
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When was the Pact of Steel signed? What did this commit Italy to do?
22nd May 1939 - the Pact of Steel was signed with Germany. This committed Italy to supporting men Germany in a war with all its military forces on land, on sea and in the air, even if Germany chose to go to war.
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Nazi-Soviet Pact
23rd August 1939
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What did the Nazi-Soviet Pact make clear?
That a German invasion of Poland was inevitable.
Mussolini had concerns about Italy's military strength and was urged by Ciano to avoid entangling Italy in a costly war.
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Before Italy had joined WW2, why was the choice of neutrality proving problematic?
* Mussolini had constantly linked fascism with militarism and aggression. To Mussolini, fascism had been born on the battlefields of Europe - it was therefore closely linked to war. It would now appear hollow if Italy chose to stay neutral in a major European war.
* Mussolini had been angry at the Liberals' non-intervention in 1914.
* To stay on the sidelines would bring shame to Mussolini, fascism and Italy.
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26th August 1939
Mussolini presented Hitler with a massive wish list of supplies that he claimed Italy
needed to support Germany in a war (this amounted to 170 million tonnes of goods).
Hitler clearly understood that this was Italy's indicating they couldn't fight, and so Hitler released Mussolini from his obligations to the Pact of Steel, asking instead for psychological support.
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3rd September 1939
Britain and France declared war on Germany - virtually the entire Fascist Grand
Council, the Vatican, Ciano and King Victor Emmanuel all advised Mussolini to avoid intervention. He agreed (though used the word non-belligerence). The overwhelming majority of Italians were greatly relieved at this.
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March - May 1940
* Hitler swept through Norway, Holland and Belgium, and was making great progress in France. Appeared that the western allies were on the edge of defeat.
* Mussolini was concerned that if Italy remained neutral, it would be faced with a Europe dominated by Germany. He therefore looked to get the timing right, so he could enter the war, play a decisive part in the conflict and then sit at the victory table as Germany's ally, but without having lost many men or been involved in a long, costly war.
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How did Mussolini try and get the timing right before entering the war in 1940?
Saw Hitler seemed to defeating the western allies.
Mussolini was concerned that if Italy remained neutral, it would be faced with a Europe dominated by Germany. He therefore looked to get the timing right, so he could enter the war, play a decisive part in the conflict and then sit at the victory table as Germany's ally, but without having lost many men or been involved in a long, costly war.
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When do Italy enter WW2 on the side of Nazi Germany?
June 10th 1940
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June 10th 1940
Mussolini announced to the Italian people that Italy had entered the war on the side of Nazi Germany. Marshal Badoglio still had grave concerns at the state of the Italian army, but Mussolini had made up his mind.
