Italy 1922-26 JANUARY MOCK 2023 Flashcards

Question

How was Fascists violence surging in early 1922?

Answer 1

As ras Italo Balbo leading squads along the east coast of Italy, destroying all houses and offices where the socialists and communists held meetings.

Answer 2

The PSI and PCI attempted to encourage further pressure on the political system by backing the call for a 24 hour general strike across the Italy.

Answer 3

Tired of strike action, most workers didn't support the move and the calls for a general strike faded away without really taking place.

Answer 4

Mussolini claimed that the reason for the strike's failure was due to the actions of the fascists, and the myth that the PNF had spared Italy from revolution became more widely believed. Indeed where workers did go on strike, fascist volunteers kept public services running and claimed they were saving the nation from the communist threat.

Answer 5

Launched new attacks in Genoa, Milan, Ancona and Bari, murdering socialist leaders and supporters, burning offices and forcing left-wing councils to resign.

Answer 6

The de facto government in many of Italy's provinces (not actually in power but in power)

Answer 7

Weakened Facta, who was unable or unwilling to stop it, as well as strengthening the fascists.

Answer 8

Around 320,000 members, and nearly half a million workers had joined fascist trade unions. WORKERS MOVING FROM SOCIALISM TO FASCISM.

Answer 9

Taken over areas around Rome and were ready to move on the capital. The seizure of power seemed only to be a matter of time.

Answer 10

Mussolini continued to favour his dual policy: * He promised that if the fascists were accepted within a government coalition, he would pursue a moderate conservative policy, backing the monarchy, reducing taxes and balancing the budget. * At the same time, he encouraged squads to attack Bolzano and Trent. This was crucial as these towns were held by conservative liberals, not socialist councils; Mussolini was now increasing the pressure by challenging the government itself.

Answer 11

* Orlando and Nitti said they would work with Mussolini, and called for a coalition that included fascism, but only if the fascists supported them as prime minister. * Key liberal figures, including Giolitti, were more concerned with stopping their rivals becoming prime minister than they were at avoiding a fascist revolution.

Answer 12

Refused to travel to the Rome to help Facta's government unless he was offered the prime ministership by the King

Answer 13

Separately promising Nitti, Salandra, Facta and Giolitti that they would be prime minister in a fascist coalition government.

Answer 14

So weak that even socialism could've taken hold. But there was a fear in socialism and Mussolini wanted it more.

Answer 15

The ras were pushing for a march on Rome and the violent takeover of government. But Mussolini still saw an opportunity to be appointed prime minister constitutionally, which he felt would give him a stronger position, not only as leader of Italy, but also over his own party. He was also concerned about the military. He was unsure what their response would be, and he knew the squads would not be able to stand up to a response from the army if the King ordered it to crush an armed uprising.

Answer 16

Mussolini met with fascist leaders who agreed to plan a takeover of Italian government. Plans were drawn up to seize the major towns and cities of northern and central Italy, with 30,000 fascists converging on Rome and installing themselves in power. Mussolini saw this as the ultimate piece of political blackmail, convinced that under this pressure, politicians would agree that he should become prime minister.

Answer 17

Mussolini made a public speech to squadristi in Naples, asserting "either we are allowed to govern or we will seize power by marching on Rome."

Answer 18

Continuing to hold talks with liberal politicians about forming a collation government.

Answer 19

Squadristi took control of government offices, telephone exchanges, railway stations and police stations. This started in Milan (heartland of fascism) and spread. prime minister Facta finally took action, asking King Victor Emmanuel III to use the army to crush this fascist insurrection.

Answer 20

The King agreed on declaring a state of emergency and using the army to enforce martial law and stop the fascists. The army began to assume control in Milan and Mussolini's arrest was ordered.

Answer 21

Changed his mind, refusing to sign the decree and declare a state of emergency.

Answer 22

* Lacked confidence in Facta and was encouraged not to sign by Salandra and his supporters, who believed Facta's resignation might allow Salandra to become prime ministser in a fascist coalition. * Also the possibility that he feared the military might not obey his orders and side with the fascists. * May also have been deterred by the idea of bloodshed across Italy as the military fought the fascists. * Crucially, the King's cousin, the Duke of Aosta, was a fascist supporter and Mussolini cleverly hinted that if the fascists took over, Victor Emmanuel III could be replaced by his cousin.

Answer 23

Demonstrated his lack of confidence in the Liberal government and would ensure fascist success. Without the King's support, Facta resigned and the King turned towards Salandra. He then asked Mussolini to be part of his new government.

Answer 24

Felt he was in a powerful enough position to demand he be made prime minister. Without Mussolini's support, Salandra was unable to form a government.

Answer 25

Salandra, Orlando and Giolitti all believed they should be made prime minister, but their hatred for each other meant that they recommended to the King that he was better to appoint Mussolini as opposed to one of their rivals.

Answer 26

During this period, Mussolini unhooked his phone and made a show of visiting the theatre an act of political showmanship demonstrating his calmness.

Answer 27

29th October 1922. He was 39 years old.

Answer 28

Underlying factors but King was the trigger.

Answer 29

Liberals thought he was more threatening that he actually was.

Answer 30

People portray it as coup d'état - a sudden, violent and unlawful seizure of power. It was actually a coup de théâtre - a propaganda coup. A triumph of perceived threat.

Answer 31

* Blackmailed government. Drew up plans to seize the major towns and cities of northern and central Italy, with 30,000 fascists converging on Rome and installing themselves in power. Mussolini was convinced that under this pressure, politicians would agree that he should become PM. * Skills as an orator (e.g 24th October) gave a stronger show of power than the fascists actually had (Mussolini knew the squads wouldn't be able to stand up to a response from the army if the King had ordered it). * Mussolini continued to hold talks with Liberal politicians about forming a coalition government. Portrayed him as someone they could work with. * Mussolini refused anything other than being PM himself - correctly realised Liberals had to included him in any government. * Mussolini unhooked his phone and made a show of visiting the theatre in an act of political showmanship and calmness.

Answer 32

The King was not necessarily supportive of Mussolini - he was much more indecisive and worried about his power.

Answer 33

Mussolini wanted 30,000 fascists to march on Rome, but many didn't make it. Squads were poorly armed, not many turned up. Bad weather. If the King had done what Facta told him, the Fascists would have been crushed.

Answer 34

* Liberal government was collapsing as fascist violence surged. The government did nothing to stop this and this weakened Facta. * The PSI and PCI called for a general strike which failed - Mussolini took the credit for its failure. Also continued to follow his dual policy. * By 1922, the PNF had grown to 320,000 members and were ready to move on to Rome. * Mussolini encouraged division amongst liberal politicians like Giolitti and Facta.

Answer 35

➡ Liberal government had failed to solve the problems of WW1 in 1919 ➡ Fear of socialist revolution and anger at Liberals doing little to prevent this ➡ Mussolini was able to plot conservative fears of socialism and create the myth that fascists were saving Italy from socialists ➡ Liberals allowed Mussolini a foothold in parliament in the May 1921 election which led to his dual policy and the forming of the PNF ➡ After the failure of the general strike, the PNF exploited liberal weakness and increased violence across Italy. The PNF was ready to match on Rome.

Answer 36

The power of war to bring Italians together, with the camaraderie felt by those fighting together producing a mutual feeling of belonging that Mussolini had not seen elsewhere. Mussolini described this as trincerocrazia, the rule of the trenches where men were linked by the idea of fighting for Italy and each other. Wanted to reproduce the patriotic feeling of togetherness they had experienced in the war.

Answer 37

To send the army against the Fascists.

Answer 38

At the second fascist national congress, a "New Programme" was adopted. This was much more conservative and right-wing, dropping any mentions of removing the monarchy and attacking the power of the Pope. There were a number of pro-business references and calls for compulsory military service. This "New Programme" was considerably more successful and popular with the Italian population.

Answer 39

Actions of Mussolini * Dual policy/New Programme * Myth of saving Italy from socialists * Squads attacking towns controlled by conservatives in October 1921 - challenging government * Coup de théâtre/turning phone off - political blackmail * Ability to manipulate the King and exploit the weaknesses of Liberals . Promises leaders they can be PM.

Answer 40

Merge this para with actions of Mussolini * Mussolini exploited fear of socialism * By July 1922 he had convinced many that fascism was saving Italy from socialism (failure of general strike) * Socialist leaders murdered - government does nothing to stop this

Answer 41

* More worried about each other, not socialists * Already weakened by coalition governments/1919 election * Giolitti allowing Mussolini on electoral role May 1921 * Nitti and Giolitti refuse to help Facta during March on Rome - all more concerned with their own political power * Facta seen as weak by the King * Salandra encouraged Kind not to sign martial law * Liberals all preferred Mussolini to be king rather than their opponents

Answer 42

* Plays a crucial role in Mussolini's appointment * Refused to sign martial law - worried about Duke of Aosta/Facta/army/bloodshed and influenced by Salandra * This was the critical decision that ultimately allows Mussolini to be appointed.

Answer 43

Feeling of togetherness. Mussolini wanted to extend this.

Answer 44

Italian Special Forces/crack troop commanders

Answer 45

32%, giving them 156 deputies. The fascists had done badly, suggesting the methods they were using weren't that popular. Mussolini was humiliated as socialists paraded a coffin symbolising his political career through the streets of Milan.

Answer 46

38 million quintals

Answer 47

1. Drop anti-monarchist and anti-church stance 2. Pro-business /compulsory military stance

Answer 48

Nitti, replaced with Giolitti who relied on support from the Catholics.

Answer 49

Biennio Rosso strikes

Answer 50

26 out Italy's 69 provinces. Emilia and Tuscany.

Answer 51

Giolitti offered him to go on the liberal electoral roll. Gained 35 seats.

Answer 52

* To gain socialist suport * To show he was a peacemaker/willing to work with PSI * Hoped the Liberals and Catholics within parliament would come to a deal to stop him working with the socialists

Answer 53

24 hour general strike across Italy to encourage further pressure on the political system

Answer 54

* Claimed the strike failed due to the actions of the fascists and that it was the PNF that had spared Italy from revolution. * Fascists were the only group that could save Italy from socialism and communism.

Answer 55

Luigi Facta

Answer 56

Use the army to crush the fascist insurrection.

Answer 57

* Lacked confidence in Facta * Encouraged not to sign by Salandra and his supporters, who believed that Facta's resignation might allow Salandra to become PM in a fascist coalition * Feared military might not obey his orders and side with the fascists * Deterred by the idea of bloodshed across Italy as the military fought the fascists * The King's cousin, the Duke of Aosta, was a fascist supporter and feared he could be replaced.

Answer 58

* Lacked confidence in Facta * Encouraged not to sign by Salandra and his supporters, who believed that Facta's resignation might allow Salandra to become PM in a fascist coalition * Feared military might not obey his orders and side with the fascists * Deterred by the idea of bloodshed across Italy as the military fought the fascists * The King's cousin, the Duke of Aosta, was a fascist supporter and feared he could be replaced.

Answer 59

30th October 1922

Answer 60

* The King - so Mussolini didn't have full power * Possibly the army. Needs the army himself * Ras is gaining a bad reputation * Squads demanding further revolution. Needs to reign them in. * Squads demanding greater rewards for their part in helping Mussolini. * Needs to work with Conservative elite * Cabinet included 4 Liberals, 2 members of the PPI, 1 ANI member, 2 members of the military and 4 fascists * PSI still dominate with 123 seats * Didn't have a lot of seats. Only 35 out of 535. 35 fascist deputies in parliament. No majority.

Answer 61

4 Liberals, 2 members of the PPI, 1 ANI member, 2 members of the military and 4 fascists

Answer 62

Only 35 - no majority

Answer 63

* Parliament subsequently approved year-long emergency powers by 306 votes to 116 against. This meant Mussolini could not be removed by parliament and had full power to govern and raise taxes without seeking parliament approval for at least a year. * Mussolini's pro-Catholic policies also encouraged the Vatican to support the PNF at the expense of the PPI. Without the crucial endorsement and leadership of Luigi Sturzo, the once powerful PPI began to decline.

Answer 64

306 votes to 116 against

Answer 65

* Pro-Catholic policies encouraged the Vatican to support the PNF at the expense of the PPI. Without the crucial endorsement and leadership of Luigi Sturzo, the once powerful PPI began to decline. * Increased clerical pay and reinstated crucifixes in schools. * Appointed PPI member, Stefano Cavazzoni, as the minister of finance and welfare, and subsequently Cavazzoni encouraged the party to accept collaboration with Mussolini. By July 1923, the leader of the PPI Luigi Sturzo had resigned over his concern that the party was being too absorbed into the PNF.

Answer 66

* Maiden speech to parliament - told the deputies present that, given the political and economic turnout, he required a year of emergency powers in order to carry out the reform that Italy required. However, Mussolini warned parliament that he had 300,000 young men ready to take violent action against deputies who wouldn't support him. This intimidated politicians who were antifascist. * Most of parliament then felt it was necessary to give Italy a year of calm. Fear of civil war.

Answer 67

16th November 1922

Answer 68

Told the deputies present that, given the political and economic turnout, he required a year of emergency powers in order to carry out the reform that Italy required (approved year-long emergency powers 306 to 116). However, Mussolini warned parliament that he had 300,000 young men ready to take violent action against deputies who wouldn't support him. This intimidated politicians who were antifascist.

Answer 69

* Made himself foreign minister and minister for the interior * His main goal was to placate the old ruling classes. He appointed the Orthodox economist Alberto de' Stefani, minister of finance, to help gain support of the Conservative industrialists who were reassured that the appointment of Mussolini was not going to lead to radical change. * Gained the trust of the powerful Catholic Church by increasing clerical pay and reinstating crucifixes in schools. * February 1923 - the ANI officially absorbed into the fascist party. IMPORTANT MOVE - taking away a powerful rival and clearly designating the PNF as the only party representing Italian nationalism. * Appointed PPI member, Stefano Cavazzoni, as the minster of work and welfare, and subsequently Cavazzoni encouraged the party to accept collaboration with Mussolini. By July 1923, the leader of the PPI Luigi Sturzo had resigned over his concern that the party was being too absorbed into the PNF.

Answer 70

1. Foreign minister 2. Minister for the interior

Answer 71

Appointed the Orthodox economist Alberto de' Stefani, minister of finance, to help gain support of the Conservative industrialists who were reassured that the appointment of Mussolini was not going to lead to radical change.

Answer 72

February 1923

Answer 73

Removed a powerful rival, clearly designating the PNF as the only party representing Italian nationalism.

Answer 74

Stefano Cavazzoni, and subsequently Cavazzoni encouraged the party to accept collaboration with Mussolini.

Answer 75

Resigned over his concern that the party were being too absorbed into the PNF. Good for Mussolini, removing opposition. Without the crucial endorsement and leadership of Luigi Sturzo, the once powerful PPI began to decline.

Answer 76

"I could have barred up parliament and formed a government only of fascists. I could have, but I have not wanted to."

Answer 77

Mistakes by opponents makes it easier to control parliament

Answer 78

Violence leads to intimidation and control

Answer 79

Control over his own party, e.g Fascist Grand Council, makes it easy to control parliament.

Answer 80

* December 1922: Fascist Grand Council created to discuss key policy and elevate fascist leadership (e.g Italo Balbo, Emilia de Bono) to same position as cabinet. * Fascist Grand Council was rival organisation to the cabinet. Helped Mussolini overcome his weak position in the cabinet and undermined the Liberal government. * Mussolini had sole ability to appoint FGC members - centralised his power over the party. * Jan 1923 - MVSN absorbed all the squadristi and formalised role as party-based force to support army/police. * 300,000 members pledged alliance to Mussolini (strengthened his control at expense of ras). * MVSN enabled Mussolini to bring an end to violence (felt it was detrimental to support among Liberal and middle classes). * Power of ras and squads was weakened by the MVSN. * Party doubled in size to 783,000 members - vast majority were from middle classes (diluted influence of older, more revolutionary fascists).

Answer 81

December 1922

Answer 82

To discuss key policy and elevate fascist leadership (e.g Italo Balbo, Emilia de Bono) to same position as cabinet.

Answer 83

* Helped Mussolini overcome his weak position in the cabinet and undermined the Liberal government. * Mussolini had sole ability to appoint FGC members - centralised his power over the party.

Answer 84

MVSN absorbed all the squadristi and formalised role as party-based force to support army/police.

Answer 85

* Disguised his own authoritarian control over the Italian state. * It constituted an important instrument of patronage, as the ambition of loyal supporters was satisfied through a seat on the council. * Nominally the highest organ of the Fascist state, it had little executive power and could do little against Mussolini's will. Nevertheless, its mere existence pointed to the fact that Mussolini was never in control of his own party in the way that Hitler was in total control of the German Nazi Party.

Answer 86

It constituted an important instrument of patronage, as the ambition of loyal supporters was satisfied through a seat on the council.

Answer 87

The MVSN was the armed muscle of the Italian Fascist Party. Often referred to as the Blackshirts, the MVSN was formed by Mussolini in 1922, the membership consisting mainly of former servicemen who could be relied upon to further the fascist cause.

Answer 88

300,000 members pledged alliance to Mussolini

Answer 89

* Enabled Mussolini to bring an end to violence (felt it was detrimental to support among Liberal and middle classes). * Power of ras and squads was weakened by the MVSN.

Answer 90

Party doubled in size to 783,000 members - vast majority were from middle classes (diluted influence of older, more revolutionary fascists).

Answer 91

He looked to hold a general election that would provide the PNF with the parliamentary mandate they currently lacked.

Answer 92

Made it difficult for one party to secure a majority.

Answer 93

Mussolini decided to introduce the Acerbo Law.

Answer 94

Enforces a majority even though there isn't a real majority.

Answer 95

Proposed that two-thirds of the parliamentary seats went to the party that won more than 25% of the vote.

Answer 96

The PCI and the PSI opposed the law, but the Liberal elites such as Giolitti, the King, Vatican all supported it, which put pressure on the PPI to abstain from voting.

Answer 97

The Italian Communist Party

Answer 98

Applied pressure by staging demonstrations in Tuscany and Umbria and threatening violence if the bill didn't pass.

Answer 99

Tuscany and Umbria

Answer 100

Mussolini encouraged it, wearing a black shirt in parliament on the day the Acerbo Law was due to be debated. The law was passed and Mussolini called an election for 6th April 1924.

Answer 101

6th April 1924

Answer 102

Saw it as a way if getting rid of socialists.

Answer 103

Would bring more stability to Italy by guaranteeing a stronger, coherent, and more long-lasting government that could finally put in place the policies Italy needed.

Answer 104

* Encouraged Mussolini to call an election for 6th April 1924. * Ensured that he had an overwhelming support in parliament without having to win more than 1/4 of all votes.

Answer 105

The campaign was tainted by violence and intimidation as fascist blackshirts destroyed hundreds of opposition clubs and offices and even murdered the PSI candidate Antonio Piccinini. This was despite the fact that Mussolini had tried to suppress the violence.

Answer 106

Murdered the PSI candidate Antonio Piccinini

Answer 107

* Believed he needed a legitimate victory to cement his power - didn't want to be open to criticism for using violence to intimidate opponents/electors. * To ensure the middle class and conservative elite still supported him. They didn't approve of the violence.

Answer 108

The fact that several prominent liberals, such as Orlando and Salandra, decided to have themselves included on the fascists' electoral list of candidates (known as the "National List").

Answer 109

The National List

Answer 110

* Suggested Mussolini was moderate/willing to compromise. * Would make the Liberal party appear weak.

Answer 111

* Instead of trying to fight Mussolini and the PNF, many Liberals tried to get on the fascist electoral list, believing it was the best way to maintain their power. * Exacerbates the fascist problem, helping Mussolini gain power.

Answer 112

Turnout was 64% and Mussolini won a resounding victory gaining 66.3% of the vote (thus making the Acerbo Law irrelevant)

Answer 113

Mussolini won a resounding victory gaining 66.3% of the vote - never actually needed the Acerbo Law.

Answer 114

The fascists had increased their number of deputies from 35 to 275 deputies. Mussolini won a resounding victory gaining 66.3% of the vote.

Answer 115

* Weakness of the opposition (opposition to the fascists was divided between the PCI, PSI, PPI and the Liberals such as Giolitti), who were unable to unite against the fascists in the build up to the election. * The electoral support of prominent Liberals. * A genuine belief that Mussolini could provide the strong leadership Italy needed.

Answer 116

Weakness of the opposition

Answer 117

Popular - but still opposition groups. Not a full dictator with absolute control yet.

Answer 118

* Doesn't have to rely on emergency powers * Gave Mussolini a majority in parliament * Suggested the PNF/Mussolini had great popularity among Italian people * Gained a majority of the vote

Answer 119

* Italy still a democracy * PSI still a threat

Answer 120

30th May 1924

Answer 121

30th May 1924: Delivered a strong, 2-hour long speech critiquing the violence and corruption that had taken place during the April 1924 election campaign. CALLED FOR AN ANNULMENT OF ELECTIONS.

Answer 122

Italian socialist leader

Answer 123

Claimed that the fascists had only won due to "the consequence of obscene violence" and were determined to establish a dictatorship, regardless of the election result.

Answer 124

The speech was embarrassing.

Answer 125

More concerned by the rumours that Matteotti had a large file on fascist party corruption and was about to make it public.

Answer 126

Afternoon of 10th June 1924

Answer 127

Matteotti's body was found in a shallow grave just outside Rome. He had been stabbed several times with a carpenter's file. This created a political storm - the murder of the leader of the political opposition.

Answer 128

Because it was the murder of the leader of the political opposition.

Answer 129

* A witness had seen the number plate of the car that Matteotti had been dragged into - belonged to Mussolini's press secretary, Cesare Rossi. * The leader of the kidnapping was Amerigo Dumini, head of fascist terror squad/secret police (the ceka). He was arrested on 12th June.

Answer 130

Secret police, set up by Mussolini, established on the model of the Soviet Cheka.

Answer 131

The number plate of the car that Matteotti had been dragged into.

Answer 132

Mussolini's press secretary - Cesare Rossi

Answer 133

Amerigo Dumini, head of fascist terror squad/secret police (the ceka).

Answer 134

The association of the fascist party and its leader with the murder of a key political leader threatened to topple the PNF government. Many people believed that Mussolini was personally responsible for the death of Matteotti.

Answer 135

Large crowds gathered in the streets to protest, people tore up their fascist membership cards in protest, communists called for a general strike and the press were fiercely critical.

Answer 136

Mussolini is in a crisis, almost removed from power. However there is no direct link to Mussolini himself, just the fascist party in general.

Answer 137

Mussolini was unsure what to do, and the government was in danger of falling.

Answer 138

1. Old, established elite - concerned about backing a PM associated with murder 2. PSI, PCI and other anti-fascist parties called for Mussolini's dismissal and the fascists to be overthrown. 3. The ras saw Matteotti's murder as the first step in a fascist revolution (wanted a revolution and a proper takeover).

Answer 139

13th June 1924

Answer 140

100 antifascist deputies left parliament, claiming that the government was unconstitutional (illegal), and established their own parliament on Aventine Hill outside Rome.

Answer 141

* JUST REMOVED OPPOSITION FOR MUSSOLINI * Aventine deputies could not agree on what to do and offered no threat to Mussolini * Destroyed any chance of parliament winning a vote of no confidence to dismiss Mussolini * Gave the King the excuse to do nothing - King refuses to dismiss Mussolini

Answer 142

"Mussolini had all the luck; the opposition was always very troublesome for me, but with him it just walks out and leaves the field free."

Answer 143

The withdrawal of the parliament opposition from the Italian Chamber of Deputies following the murder of the deputy Giacomo Matteotti by fascists on June 10, 1924.

Answer 144

* This act of protest heralded the assumption of total power by Benito Mussolini and his National Fascist Party and the establishment of a one-party dictatorship in Italy. * It was unsuccessful in opposing the National Fascist Party, and after two years the Chamber of Deputies ruled that the 123 Aventine deputies had forfeited their positions. * In the following years, many of the "Aventinian" deputies were forced into exile or imprisoned.

Answer 145

* This act of protest heralded the assumption of total power by Benito Mussolini and his National Fascist Party and the establishment of a one-party dictatorship in Italy. * It was unsuccessful in opposing the National Fascist Party, and after two years the Chamber of Deputies ruled that the 123 Aventine deputies had forfeited their positions. * In the following years, many of the "Aventinian" deputies were forced into exile or imprisoned.

Answer 146

That he had the backing of the King, the pope, the army and business and political elites.

Answer 147

* Believed he and the PNF were the best option (especially as they feared a socialist government or civil war if Mussolini was dismissed) * Strong right-wing anticommunist government appealed to these key figures. They had no interest in a change of leader, especially if it helped the socialists.

Answer 148

The absence of 100 antifascist deputies meant that it was easier for Mussolini to pass legislation through parliament.

Answer 149

* He handed the positions of interior and justice ministers to the nationalists Luigi Federzoni and Alfredo Rocco. * He also ordered the PNF to stop all forms of violence, although this put pressure on him from his ras.

Answer 150

Luigi Federzoni and Alfredo Rocco

Answer 151

Gave the government (Mussolini) a massive vote of confidence by 225 votes to 21 (despite the Senate not being packed with Mussolini's supporters). Showed they were still worried about a socialist takeover.

Answer 152

225 votes to 21

Answer 153

* Weakness of opposition - Aventine Secession * Support of influential, powerful figures e.g the King, the pope, army * Fear of socialism * Fear of violence, civil war, and instability was always present WEAKNESS OF OPPOSITION = MOST IMPORTANT REASON

Answer 154

* Reduced strength of anti-fascists in parliament, making it easier for Mussolini to pass legislation. * Consolidated/reconfirmed support of key groups e.g the army, political elites, the King, the pope, and new groups e.g the Senate * Gave Mussolini greater confidence * By putting pressure on Mussolini from both sides and making him vulnerable to being overthrown forced Mussolini to act to increase his power by ending democracy and establishing his dictatorship.

Answer 155

* Ordered the PNF to cease all forms of violence. * Removed any members who refused to follow his orders. * Made officers of the MVSN swear an oath of loyalty to the King, as well as Mussolini. * Confirmed that MVSN officers would be ex-army regulars.

Answer 156

The King, as well as Mussolini

Answer 157

* Confirmed that MVSN officers would be ex-army regulars. * Made officers of the MVSN swear an oath of loyalty to the King, as well as Mussolini. * Ordered the PNF to cease all forms of violence. * Removed any members who refused to follow his orders.

Answer 158

Angered squads, who saw this as Mussolini giving in. The ras became worried that they would lose control over their squads.

Answer 159

31st December 1924

Answer 160

Mussolini met with squad leaders who demanded he act to defend the fascist revolution and clamp down on opposition or they would remove him as leader of the PNF.

Answer 161

* Two days earlier, Salandra has declared his opposition to Mussolini. Mussolini became worried Salandra could influence the King. * Salandra and his group of Liberals were on the point of leaving the coalition, which would have had a dramatic effect on opinion in the court, as well as in the country at large. Pressured from two sides at this point, the ras who demanded he act to defend the fascist revolution and clamp down on opposition, and the elites like Salandra and his group of Liberals.

Answer 162

2nd January 1925

Answer 163

The Times declared that Mussolini "was finished", and predicted that he was about to announce his resignation.

Answer 164

Decided to take the initiative and act before any of his opponents could (militia move against him, opponents produce further criminal accusations, or the King dismisses him as morally and politically unfit to rule)

Answer 165

Mussolini makes key speech to parliament, announcing the establishment of the fascist dictatorship - not a dictatorship of the party but a personal rule under Mussolini. He took responsibility for Matteotti's murder and blamed the opposition for the breakdown of democracy.

Answer 166

When he made his speech on 3rd January 1925.

Answer 167

Mussolini formed a new cabinet, this time without most of the Liberals, where Mussolini himself took on the roles of prime minister and mister to foreign affairs, war, navy and aviation.

Answer 168

Appointed Roberto Farinacci as the PNF secretary, with the task of purging the party of those radicals who would not accept Mussolini's political direction. Farinacci also increased fascist membership from 600,000 to 938,000, diluting the power of the squadristi, increasing people less interested in Fascist revolution and violence, increasing loyalty to Mussolini.

Answer 169

Roberta Farinacci

Answer 170

Purge the party of those radicals who would not accept Mussolini's political direction.

Answer 171

Increased fascist membership from 600,000 to 938,000, diluting the power of the squadristi, increasing people less interested in Fascist revolution and violence, increasing loyalty to Mussolini.

Answer 172

* The Fascist Grand Council approved a motion that forced all ras to disband any squads still in existence and enlist in the militia (MVSN). This ended the power of the provincial ras and the squadristi. * Gained support of the army by increasing officer and generals' pay and appointing conservative monarchist, Pietro Badoglio to the role of the Chief of General Staff.

Answer 173

From 600,000 to 938,000, diluting the power of the squadristi.

Answer 174

* Palazzo Vidoni Pact, which established the official fascist unions as the only representatives of Italy's workers, taking power from the catholic and socialist unions. * Fascist unions were much more subservient to the industrialists, gaining their support.

Answer 175

By increasing officer and generals' pay and appointing conservative monarchist, Pietro Badoglio to the role of Chief of General Staff.

Answer 176

Pietro Badoglio

Answer 177

The industrialists, gaining their support.

Answer 178

The pact abolished Catholic, Socialist and all other independent unions and declared Fascist-controlled unions to have a monopoly on labour representation.

Answer 179

Through Mussolini's consolidation of power, the King could always have dismissed Mussolini, but never does.

Answer 180

* Claims he didn't create Cheka and an Italian Cheka had never existed (it had) * Tries to distance himself from violence * Says he's not responsible, but he'll take full responsibility

Answer 181

4th August 1925

Answer 182

Socialist deputy Tito Zaniboni was arrested for allegedly plotting to assassinate Mussolini.

Answer 183

Tito Zaniboni

Answer 184

* Banned Zaniboni's political party, the Partito Socialista Unitario - offshoot of a socialist party (PSU) * Introduced a new press law, which meant all journalism had to be supervised and approved by the state * Introduced a new law giving the government the power to sack any public employee who actions either in or out of work went against the PNF - have to be loyal to fascists.

Answer 185

Partito Socialista Unitario

Answer 186

Pope withdrew his support for the PPI, and the Catholic party collapses.

Answer 187

* Title of prime minister of Italy becomes Head of Government and Duce of Fascism - Il Duce * Parliament no longer able to remove the prime minister through a vote of no confidence

Answer 188

December 1925

Answer 189

Mussolini had dismantled Italy's democratic institutions and assumed his role as dictator, adopting the title Il Duce.

Answer 190

Mussolini granted the ability to rule by decree, allowing him to make laws without discussion, consultation or a vote in parliament.

Answer 191

January 1926

Answer 192

The final confirmation of the dictatorship was established, with all political parties apart from the PNF banned.

Answer 193

31st October 1926

Answer 194

* Special Tribunal for the Defence of the State was set up for the prosecution of antifascists, who would have no right of appeal. * Aventine deputies permanently excluded from parliament. * Communist parliamentarians who had not joined the Aventine Secession were banned and their leader, Antonio Gramsci, arrested. * Secret police OVRA set up in 1926

Answer 195

Special Tribunal for the Defence of the State

Answer 196

Antonio Gramsci

Answer 197

The OVRA was the Italian precursor of the German Gestapo. Mussolini's secret police were assigned to stop any anti-fascist activity or sentiment.

Answer 198

Arturo Bocchini

Answer 199

A network of special and informal secret inspectorates, whose structure, mission, and modus operandi clearly helped subvert Italy's liberal institutions and achieve totalitarian control.

Answer 200

To protect Mussolini and help create the illusion of consensus surrounding his regime. In this they were highly successful, after 1926 no assassin came close to Mussolini, and clandestine opposition was effectively suppressed.

Answer 201

Most opposition leaders (an estimated 10,000) fled into exile in France and elsewhere - their Italian citizenship was withdrawn and their property confiscated under fascist legislation.

Answer 202

To establish control over the regions. * Elected local governments abolished, and mayors replaced with a new position called podestà, who were appointed by local prefects. * Prefects, accountable directly to Mussolini, would hold the most powerful positions in Italian regions and not the ras. * New PNF secretary Augusto Turati stated that in any conflict between the ras and the prefects, the prefects would come first.

Answer 203

Podestà, who are appointed by local prefects.

Answer 204

PREFECT - accountable directly to Mussolini, and not the ras.

Answer 205

Augusto Turati

Answer 206

By the end of 1926, Italy was to all extents and purposes a one party, police state, with opposition banned and persecuted. However, it was not the dictatorship the ras had hoped for when they pressured Mussolini to act at the end of 1924. Mussolini had created an extremely personalised form of dictatorship, and he would dominate both Italy and the PNF in his role as "Il Duce".

Answer 207

* Parliament approved year long emergency powers by 306 to 116. * PNF were helped by the fact that several prominent Liberals decided to have themselves included on the National List instead of trying to fight Mussolini. * 1924 election - Mussolini won. Opposition to the fascists was divided by the PCI, PSI, PPI and the Liberals. Unable to unite against the fascists in the build up the election. * Aventine Secession - removes all opposition. Gains senate and King backing. * King stays natural after the Matteotti crisis. Never dismisses Mussolini. * ANI allowed themselves to be absorbed into the PNF. * Catholics didn't go against him. * They allow the passing of the Acerbo Law.

Answer 208

* Understandable political opponents might want stability/avoid civil war * Miscalculated what would happen after Matteotti crisis * Bribed/threatened - Mussolini was skilful, no choice?

Answer 209

* Uses bribes/threats of violence. Maiden speech. * Acerbo Law - wears blackshirt * 1924 election - intimidation and violence * Appoints conservative elites/catholics to positions * Creates FGC to limit power of the cabinet * Creates MVSN - absorb squads. * Reduces power of the ras. Prefects more power than ras. * Gives speech after Matteotti crisis.

Answer 210

Transforming Italy into a republic.

Answer 211

Too unpopular - would hinder his goal of becoming PM.

Answer 212

King still in power - Italy was a constitutional monarchy.

Answer 213

* Helped Mussolini consolidate power * Gained acceptance of fascism among army/judiciary/civil service.

Answer 214

More the threat of violence.

Answer 215

* In the 1924 election, socialists and communists still managed to gain 2.5 million votes, despite deputies being genuinely worried about the left. * Fascists joined Liberals in election * Milan and Turin didn't gain fascist majorities. Also Matteotti criticised Mussolini's use of violence which led to his murder - nearly caused his downfall.

Answer 216

Mussolini's control over the fascist party and its more radical elements enabled him to overcome the Matteotti crisis and overturn democracy.

Answer 217

Enabled Mussolini to have centralised control over his party with the FGC and overcome weak position in the cabinet. By 1925, rarely uses them at all. Militia weakened the authority of the ras and meant Mussolini could control its use of violence as well.

Answer 218

Fear of left meant old elite always willing to side with fascists/by 1925 any opposition in parliament divided and lacking in leadership due to its earlier support for fascism. Due to their even present fear of socialism and politicians such as Giolitti and Salandra were often willing to support Mussolini's policies. Although the Matteotti crisis of 1924 could very well have led to Mussolini's downfall, the Aventine Secession and Liberals division meant that when Mussolini announced his intention to create a dictatorship, there was no one left with the will to stop him.

Answer 219

The relationship between the King and Mussolini was a political balancing act and compromise that ultimately suited the both. * Italy remained a constitutional monarchy - the King remained head of state with sole power to remove Mussolini - but he doesn't!! * King Victor Emmanuel III made little effort to either prevent or minimise the erosion of his power - he was unwilling to challenge Mussolini and happy to play a subservient role to a dictator as long as he was able to retain his position.

Answer 220

* Allowed King to remain Head of State, which meant that the King could in theory remove Mussolini. * BUT Mussolini did NOT erode the constitutional monarchy although there is some evidence that he was just waiting for the right time to do this. * King was not a great supporter of fascism BUT willing not to oppose Mussolini as long as he remained some power. Therefore he did not get rid of the anti-semitic decrees in 1938/didn't use the army to curb fascism. * BUT King did resist some elements of fascism - he refused to allow the fascist symbol on the Italian flag for example. Overall, Mussolini was willing to keep the King as long as it suited him.

Answer 221

* December 1928: FGC was granted the right to nominate future prime ministers and advise the King on future royal succession (a considerable humiliation for the King) * March 1938: Mussolini and the King shared the highest rank (shared martial of the empire) in the military (June 1940: Mussolini took complete control of the military)

Answer 222

FGC was granted the right to nominate future prime ministers and advise the King on future royal succession (a considerable humiliation for the King)

Answer 223

December 1928

Answer 224

March 1938

Answer 225

Refused to allow the fascist symbol on the Italian flag

Answer 226

Encouraged the armed forces and state administration, who were still very loyal towards the King, to accept fascist dictatorship.

Answer 227

Generally, Mussolini was prepared to work with the existing elites (the army and the civil service) in order to cement and retain his power. A wholesale sacking of personnel and their replacement by Fascist Party appointees would almost certainly have caused a crisis. Mussolini was keen to avoid any crisis and to achieve his goals without provoking a head-on clash with these institutions.

Answer 228

Mussolini allowed the military to run independently (although they did give their loyalty to the Duce). * He was minister of war, but left the running of the armed forces to under-secretaries, who were really generals or admirals. * He gained further support by promoting senior generals to the prestigious post of field marshal. * Ambitious officers soon came to realise that a pro-fascist attitude, and preferably party membership, would enormously increase their chances of promotion. They have to support an aggression foreign policy.

Answer 229

Promoting senior generals to the prestigious post of field marshal.

Answer 230

His approach to the civil service meant there was no fascist revolution in government. * Most civil servants kept their jobs, as they were largely sympathetic towards Mussolini e.g in the Ministry of Corporations, all the senior staff had been civil servants since 1916. However, in 1927, only about 15% of civil servants were actually members of the Fascist Party. * Mussolini played on this sympathy by rewarding loyalty and introducing policies that conservatives would support. Membership of the PNF therefore did increase in the 1930s, due to the realisation that promotion depends on being a card-carrying supporter of the regime. * At the same time, Mussolini made it clear that if his wishes were not supported and obeyed, he would be ruthless in seeking out and destroying opposition.

Answer 231

A greater acceptance of Mussolini's dictatorship and therefore strengthened his position, albeit at the expense of full fascist control of government.

Answer 232

Mussolini's handling of the judiciary.

Answer 233

* Mussolini conducted a purge of "undesirable elements". Dozens of judges were sacked for not supporting fascism or being too independent of the government. * The Italian legal system lost all claim to impartiality. * Imprisonment without trial became common, and where cases did come to court, Mussolini occasionally intervened to dictate verdicts and sentences.

Answer 234

Lost all claim to impartiality.

Answer 235

* Mussolini was prepared to work with them/offer incentives in return for loyalty and to cement his power and avoid a crisis. * Cemented loyalty to his dictatorship and strengthened his position. * Handling of the judiciary was an exception - ensured that any future opposition would be kept under control. * Mussolini's politics was about him rather than full fascist control of the state.

Answer 236

The laws of December 1925 changed the structure of central government, with Mussolini taking on a new position as head of government. He was now only accountable to the King, NOT PARLIAMENT.

Answer 237

Parliament therefore lost the ability to discuss policy, to debate and change proposed legislation, and to criticise the government. Only Mussolini could initiate legislation.

Answer 238

The chamber was dominated by Fascist deputies who did not even bother to vote formally on laws, they simply shouted their agreement.

Answer 239

* Free elections ceased to exist, and the electorate was reduced to exclude most of the working classes. * All candidates had to be approved by the Fascists, and the results were rigged to show over 98% approved of the regime.

Answer 240

Parliament abolished itself altogether and was replaced by the equally meaningless Chamber of Fasces and Corporations.

Answer 241

January 1939

Answer 242

Mussolini did choose to leave the Senate, whose members were appointed for life by the King, completely unchanged. In 1932, 148 senators were not members of the PNF. This was another example of Mussolini accommodating the existing political elite in order to cement his dictatorship.

Answer 243

148. Example of Mussolini accommodating the existing political elite in order to cement his dictatorship.

Answer 244

Accommodating the existing political elite in order to cement his dictatorship.

Answer 245

Mussolini was not prepared to share power with his government ministers (indeed, he held the ministries of foreign affairs, interior and the three armed services himself).

Answer 246

No cabinet-style government with ministers jointly discussing and deciding government policy.

Answer 247

The role of the Fascist Grand Council was formalised in the constitution as the most important legal body in the state - all major matters Ito be discussed and approved by the Council.

Answer 248

December 1928

Answer 249

In reality, it had little influence. Mussolini retained the power to appoint the top PNF leaders and set out laws to be debated by the FGC. Crucially, the FGC was not consulted on major policies such as that towards the Catholic Church (1929) or Italy's entry into WWII (1940). Indeed, throughout the 1930s, the FGC barely met.

Answer 250

* This is the area that saw Mussolini compromise the least. * Parliament was sidelined, and once political parties were banned, it was full of fascist supporters. By 1939 it was abolished. * Only area of compromise was with the Senate, as Mussolini needed to placate the elite in order to cement his dictatorship. * Again, loyalty to Mussolini as dictator/his leadership is key to his political aims.

Answer 251

Local government was largely out of control of the fascist party, and instead placed in the hands of the conservative elite and career civil servants (appointed by Mussolini - still controlling)

Answer 252

Abolished - and elected majors and town councils were replaced by officials appointed from Rome.

Answer 253

YES. The traditional position of the Prefects (more powerful than podestà) as the highest state authority in each Italian province remained, and these were mostly career civil servants.

Answer 254

Wide-ranging and involved organising the police, censoring the local press and suppressing antifascist activity.

Answer 255

Although not always fascists, the prefects were appointed by Mussolini and this ensured loyalty to his political goals.

Answer 256

The podestà, who were appointed by the prefect. These were also given to the existing conservative elite rather than fascists.

Answer 257

Should not be viewed as lessening the power of Mussolini. The prefects and podestà ultimately owed their position to Mussolini, thus ensuring that these local authorities would carry out his political policies. This approach to local government therefore enabled him to strengthen his personal dictatorship, extending his power throughout the Italian state, at the expanse of the PNF.

Answer 258

* Compromises quite a lot. * Allows the conservative elites to take positions of the podestà which meant Mussolini gained cooperation from them. * Despite the fact that prefects were not necessarily fascists, still owed their loyalty to Mussolini meaning he could achieve his political goals. * By not allowing the ras to be in charge of local government, he strengthened his control over the PNF. * Political goal = to strengthen his personal dictatorship.

Answer 259

➡ KING: Little compromise. King loses most powers. Suits Mussolini. ➡ CONSERVATIVE ELITES: More compromise. Just wants loyalty. Except judiciary. ➡ CENTRAL GOVERNMENT: Least compromise. Except with senate. ➡ LOCAL GOVERNMENT: Allows it to be run by elite. Loyalty.

Answer 260

* Not compromising -> asserting control. * He was able to minimise the power of his own political party: the PNF would serve the Duce and not the other way round. * Removed anyone that could pose a threat e.g Balbo and Grandi * A party of Mussolini - centralised his power.

Answer 261

* Not compromising -> asserting control. * He was able to minimise the power of his own political party: the PNF would serve the Duce and not the other way round. * Removed anyone that could pose a threat e.g Balbo and Grandi * A party of Mussolini - centralised his power.

Answer 262

Roberto Farinacci.

Answer 263

To purge the party of those who did not agree with the direction pursued by Mussolini. (However, he continued to encourage squad violence against socialists, Catholics and the PPI, and so was replaced by the more bureaucratic Augusto Turati.

Answer 264

The Duce illustrated his mastery of the party at the final party congress.

Answer 265

Mussolini demanded that the party should end internal arguments and obey his orders. Dissenting voices were shouted down. Although it was scheduled to last 3 days, it only lasted a few hours.

Answer 266

Mussolini had organised a purge of Fascists suspected of disloyalty. 50,000-60,000 members were thrown out of the party, and another 110,000 left voluntarily.

Answer 267

50,000-60,000

Answer 268

Another 120,000

Answer 269

They were replaced by around 800,000 new fascists, who had little interest in fascists revolution or challenging Mussolini, and mainly joined excuse of the job opportunities and benefits PNF membership provided. They were mainly white-collar state employees.

Answer 270

PNF had become totally subservient to its leader, and Mussolini had ensured that central power lay completely with him and not the PNF.

Answer 271

Partly testament to his political skill, but also due to the fact that only he could provide unity. The PNF was not a united, coherent movement but an uneasy collection of groups (squads, ex-socialists, nationalists, conservatives) with different views and priorities. The different groups looked to win Mussolini's interest and support, with his concerns and enthusiasms changing over time. 𝗧𝗵𝗲 𝗿𝗲𝗮𝗹 𝘀𝗶𝗴𝗻𝗶𝗳𝗶𝗰𝗮𝗻𝗰𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝘁𝗵𝗶𝘀 𝘄𝗮𝘀 𝘁𝗵𝗮𝘁 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗗𝘂𝗰𝗲 𝗮𝗻𝗱 𝗻𝗼𝘁 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗽𝗮𝗿𝘁𝘆 𝘄𝗮𝘀 𝗿𝗲𝘀𝗽𝗼𝗻𝘀𝗶𝗯𝗹𝗲 𝗳𝗼𝗿 𝗱𝗲𝘁𝗲𝗿𝗺𝗶𝗻𝗶𝗻𝗴 𝘁𝗵𝗲 𝗰𝗼𝘂𝗿𝘀𝗲 𝗼𝗳 𝗙𝗮𝘀𝗰𝗶𝘀𝘁 𝗽𝗼𝗹𝗶𝗰𝘆.

Answer 272

* Squads demanded the continuation of violent raids. * Ex-socialists wanted the reorganisation of industry * Nationalists desired changes to the WW1 peace settlement * Conservatives hoped for the restoration of law and order

Answer 273

Tended to promote second-rate officials, who were notable less for their ability than for the obedience and powers of flattery, to the senior posts in the party. This was due to his continuing concern to prevent the emergence of potential rivals. Men of drive and ambition found themselves removed from the centre of power.

Answer 274

* The young squad leader Italo Balbo was sent to occupy a post in Libya * Dino Grandi was sent to London as Italian ambassador, a post of honour but little power

Answer 275

Therefore, no serious rival to the Duce ever emerged. Even many ras realised that Mussolini was prepared to allow them to keep much of their power in the provinces provided they remained utterly loyal and obedient to him (they were also aware that without Mussolini, their own power would collapse).

Answer 276

The PNF had a significant role to play in helping to transform ordinary Italians into obedient, disciplined fascists.

Answer 277

A rival authority to that of the institutions of state, leading to tensions and arguments between party organisations and government departments. In these disputes, both sides looked to Mussolini to solve them, giving him great power.

Answer 278

* 1927: he transferred control over the OND from the Ministry of National Economy to the Party * 1929: he took the ONB out of the hands of the party organisation and handed control to the Ministry of Education

Answer 279

A slow and inefficient government, especially as so many matter had to wait for Mussolini's personal decision. It also meant that many decisions were taken without proper thought or consultation. All too often, this lead to confusion, delay and incompetence.