The Immune system/ virus and vaccine

Question 1

What is the transport system of the immune system

Answer 1

The lymph nodes

Question 2

What happens when the immune system is invaded

Answer 2

The inate immune system is activated
1. Macrophages and dendridic cells (phagocytes) are the first on the scene and begin to eat the infection
2. Extra support is provided by Neutrophils (which are short term and leave pus)
3. Histamine molecules are released causing vasodialation – phagocytes can enter the area easier

IF the defenses are overwhelmed the adaptive immune system kicks in
1. Dendrite cells go through the lymphatic system to find Helper T cells. When the correct antibody matches with the antigen, the helper T cell clones
2. Into memory T cells and another group that goes to reenergizze the macrophages at the front line.
3. It also activates B cells (which make antibodies for any disease and killer T cells
4. B cells activate memory B cells and produce antibodies that recognize the antigen and produce antibodies

Question 3

What is the first part of the adaptive immune system to be activated and what does it

Answer 3

The helper T cell by the dendric cell

Question 4

What does a helper T cell do

Answer 4

They are specific to 1 antigen

1. Activates memory T cells
2. Activates B cells
3. Activates Killer T cells

They need a lot of ATP for recruiting

Question 5

What do B cells do

Answer 5

B cells are responsible for producing antibodies, which are proteins that recognize and bind to specific foreign substances, such as viruses or bacteria, and help to neutralize them or mark them for destruction by other immune cells.

1. Antigen recognition: The first step in B cell activation is the recognition of a specific antigen by the B cell’s surface receptor. This receptor is composed of a membrane-bound immunoglobulin (Ig) molecule that can bind to a specific part of the antigen, called the epitope.

Internalization and processing: After binding to the antigen, the B cell receptor and the antigen are internalized into the B cell. The antigen is then broken down into smaller fragments, which are presented on the surface of the B cell as antigenic peptides.

Presentation to helper T cells: B cells can only be fully activated by helper T cells, which recognize the antigenic peptides presented by the B cells. This recognition occurs when the T cell receptor (TCR) on the surface of the helper T cell binds to the antigenic peptide presented by the B cell.

Co-stimulation: Once the helper T cell recognizes the antigenic peptide, it provides a co-stimulatory signal to the B cell. This co-stimulation is necessary for the B cell to become fully activated and to begin proliferating.

Differentiation: After receiving the co-stimulatory signal, the B cell undergoes clonal expansion, which results in the production of a large number of identical B cells that are all specific for the same antigen. Some of these activated B cells differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells, while others become memory B cells that can provide long-term protection against future infections by the same pathogen.

Question 6

How does the adaptive immune system recognize so many pathogens

Answer 6

The immune system can recognize as many as 1 to 10 million pathogens by B and T cells mixing their code to represent possible variations found

Question 7

What prevents the mutated cells in the random variation B and T antibodies from attacking the body

Answer 7

They go through the Thymus, Support the growth of T-cells by educating them to recognize and respond to specific antigens. It’s crucial to preventing an autoimmune reaction as it kills cells that would attack the body.

Question 8

inate defense system

Answer 8

External barricades– skin, mucus
- Enzymes in the saliva and eye fluid, and peptides in the skin that keep cuts from getting fungi and bacteria in them

Internal defenses– fever, chemical signals, inflammation
- phagocytes, neutrophils, macrophages
- Natural killer cells – kill your own cells if theyve been infected

Question 9

What are natural killer cells/ Killer T cells

Answer 9

patrol blood and lymph, can kill your own cells if they’re cancerous or bad
* NHC1 isn’t made in infected cells, if it detects it, it pokes it with an enzyme that triggers apoptosis (cell death)

Question 10

what do histamine molecules do

Answer 10

cause vasodialation (signs of healing) increased temp increases cell metabolic rate
* increases permeability, and capillaries send proteins, increasing swelling, which is a good thing
* phagocytes can escape capillaries and eat bacteria
* neutrophils start to die

Question 11

What happens when phagocytes get overwhelmed

Answer 11

they release chemicals that tap the hypothalamus and raise the body’s thermostat (fever) to burn everything, increases the metabolism of the cells, tells the liver and spleen to hold their iron and zinc so that they can’t contribute to bacterial growth

Question 12

What is an antigen

Answer 12

something on a pathogen (bacteria virus) that the immune system does recognize (usually a protein or carb)

Question 13

Why do we feel sick

Answer 13

Its only after the immune response has been signaled that we start feeling sick
1. Fever – makes the immune cells work better

2. “calling for backup”– increased bloodflow, butrients and antibodies
   - increased permiability of capilaries, so things get red and swollen from escess fluid

Question 14

What are the regions of the antibodies

Answer 14

constant region – same for all antibodies , interacts with other immune system proteins/cells eg macrophages provides structure and interacts with others

Variable region – binds to one antigen

Question 15

differences between primary and secondary immune response

Answer 15

secondary response is faster and higher intensity

Question 16

antibiotics

Answer 16

target infectious bacteria

Question 17

antibody

Answer 17

proteins made by immune cells that are used to fight pathogens

Question 18

herd immunity

Answer 18

people who cant get the vaccine are protected because everyone else is

Question 19

Antiviral

Answer 19

make a virus infection less severe
- they work by affecting virus replication

Question 20

mRNA vaccine

Answer 20

• much faster development
• gives the cell the instructions to attack the virus
• mRNA vaccines work by introducing a piece of mRNA that corresponds to a viral protein, usually a small piece of a protein found on the virus’s outer membrane

Question 21

Humoral Immunity

Answer 21

a part of our immune system that fights against infections caused by bacteria and viruses outside of our cells.

It involves the production of antibodies that can recognize and neutralize these harmful invaders.

These antibodies are released into our bloodstream and other body fluids to help prevent the spread of infections and protect us from getting sick.

Question 22

Immunocompitency

Answer 22

the immune system can determine friend from foe

Question 23

passive immunity

Answer 23

Temporary protection through antibodies

• By sending preformed antibodies into the blood stream
• what a baby gets from its mother

Question 24

What is the size of immune cells in order

Answer 24

Antigen – Antibody – Virus – macrophage – vein

Question 25

Virus Vaccines can be

Answer 25

Weakened (attenuated) - putting it through animal cells so that its slow in humans

Inactivated- usually with chemicals, more risky, can never reproduce

Protein Based - proteins from the surface of the virus are made without making the whole virus

Nucleic Acid vaccines - DNA or RNA, and only involved developing genetic material

mRNA- having our own bodies produce it, they isolate the rna of the virus and create mrna with instructions to build an aspect of the virus, could build their own spike proteins
No side effects, bc the immune system can attack without the symptoms of the virus surfacing

Question 26

Which of the following is true of attenuated viruses

Answer 26

the virus can reproduce in non-human cells

Question 27

What vaccine has whole viruses

Answer 27

Attenuated and inactivated

Question 28

Phases of vaccine development

Answer 28

Phase 1
- 20-80 adults, assess safety, immune response, determine dosing

Phase 2
- well controlled up to 1000 people
- assess immune response

Phase 3
- 1000-10000 people
- double blind placebo
- observe rarer side affects

Question 29

Convalescent serum

Answer 29

Doctors can use antibodies from the blood of people who have had it and injecti it into other people

Question 30

Side effects of inflammation

Answer 30

• feeling sick
• heat
• swelling
• sensitivity
• pain

Question 31

Cytokines

Answer 31

chemicals that get cells to move to the inflamed area

storm- a severe immune response where the body releases too many cytokines too quickly (which can cause sepsis)

Question 32

Drugs and inflammation

Answer 32

Ibuprofen - inhibits prostaglandins and reduces inflammation

Other drugs work through tumor necrosis factor alpha

Question 33

What are allergies

Answer 33

Abnormal reaction to the immune system to otherwise harmless substances

Question 34

How do allergies work

Answer 34

Question 35

Anaphylactic shock

Answer 35

an immediate allergic responce , sudden life threatening drop in blood pressure

Question 36

Delayed allergic responses

Answer 36

initiated by memory T cells at the location of contact with the allergen (poison ivy)

Question 37

Parasite hypothesis

Answer 37

reasoning for why allergies have gotten a lot worse

Question 38

Toxin hypothesis

Answer 38

another hypothesis about why we have bad allergies

Question 39

Acquired Immune Deficiency

Answer 39

Acquired immune deficiencies thatcan be caused by infections, chemical exposure, or radiation

Question 40

Autoimmune disease

Answer 40

Kiler T cells or antibodies attack the body’s own cells

Involves genetic and environmental factors

Sometimes follows an infection
- rheumatic fever
- rheumatoid arthritis: antibodies against joints

Question 41

Systemic Lupis

Answer 41

joint pain and flush, damage to central nerveous system, hear and kidneys, high levels of anti-DNA antibodies

Question 42

Multiple Sclerosis

Answer 42

T cells attack the myelin sheath covering nerve fibers, causing nerveous system dysfunction, double vision, and muscular weakness

Question 43

In what ways do memory B and T cells have unique characteristics akin to stem cells, or are they a type of stem cells themselves?

Answer 43

Not stem cells, but can divide with mitosis and can generate memory cells with self-renewal
Long-living like stem cells

Question 44

How has the immune system evolved to defend against a multitude of diseases and what role do memory cells play in this context?

Answer 44

The evolution of the immune system has led to the development of innate and adaptive immune responses, with memory cells playing a crucial role in providing long-lasting protection against a multitude of diseases.

Cells mix their genetic code so that they can create different receptors and recognize potential disease threats

Memory cells hold onto information about how to recognize foreign pathogens

Question 45

How do antibodies and T cells find their respective targets?

Answer 45

Antibodies use a lock and key mechanism to recognize and bind to the antigen

T cells use a similar mechanism T cells recognize their targets through a receptor called the T cell receptor (TCR), which is expressed on the surface of T cells.

TCRs also have a high degree of specificity and can recognize specific peptide fragments derived from antigens that are presented on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs).

Question 46

Imagine the processes where an antibody neutralizes a pathogen or toxin, or a T cell destroys an infected cell, and speculate where these actions take place within the body.

Answer 46

Antibodies neutralize pathogens or toxins in blood, lymphatic system, or tissue

T cell destroys an infected cell at the site of the infection

Question 47

Can attenuated viruses lead to human infections?

Answer 47

No (weakened) → can’t replicate in human cells

Attenuated = weakened, whole virus

Inactivated = also whole virus with no possible ability to replicate or infect

Question 48

Explore the vaccination process from the perspective of B cells. How do they contribute to vaccination?

Answer 48

B cells counter antigens of the vaccine version of the virus
Clone to create B cells specific to vaccine antigens to fight in the future

Question 49

Proceed to discuss the concept of convalescent serum

Answer 49

Doctors can use antibodies from the blood of recovered patients or artificial antibodies to prevent and treat illness in others. They can be used to isolate helper T or B cells

Question 50

How can it be used in preventing or treating COVID-19, and what makes neutralizing antibodies special in this context?

Answer 50

Can prevent or treat COVID by identifying it for destruction by macrophages (flag) or neutralizing and blocking it by keeping the spike protein from binding to ACE2 receptors

Question 51

What is the primary purpose of a vaccine, and how does it help build our immune memory?

Answer 51

Introduce the body to a virus so that it can have a partial immune response that does not trigger illness, so that when it encounters the pathogen later, it already has antibodies

Memory T and B cells produce small amounts of antibodies for a sustained period of time

Question 52

Learn about antivirals and why they must be carefully designed to target specific viral proteins without adversely affecting host cells.

Answer 52

Target virus, but must be given in a specific time period to affect virus replication, and they also have to avoid negatively affecting your own cells. They don’t work very well because viruses adapt quickly

Question 53

What makes mRNA vaccines preferable over traditional ones?

Answer 53

1. Quick production
2. Fewer side effects
3. Fragile and does not survive long enough to alter dna

Question 54

How do mRNA function, and why don’t they make people sick despite stimulating an immune response?

Answer 54

They make our bodies produce our own version of the spike protein so we build a non affecting version
The immune response can occur without symptoms of the virus because it has been developed by the body’s rna instructions
Only builds an aspect of the virus

Question 55

what factors debunk the mRNA myth that vaccines alter our DNA

Answer 55

mRNA is quickly broken down by the body and never reaches the nucleus, so it can’t interact/change our genetic information

This is why you have to store vaccines at low temps so the mrna does not die

Question 56

What are the primary roles of memory B cells in the adaptive immune response, and how do they differ in active and passive humoral immunity?

Answer 56

Humoral immunity is mediated by B cells and activates memory B cells to aid in the growth of the adaptive immune response

Active Humoral Immunity: body’s immune system recognizes a pathogen and responds with its own antibodies

Can be naturally active (immune system responds with B cells and produces memory B cells) OR
Artificially active: vaccination

Passive Humoral Immunity: provides immediate but short-term protection because it does not develop memory cells

Can be naturally passive (transfer of antibodies through placenta or breast milk) OR

Artificially passive (administration of pre-formed antibodies in, for example, immunoglobulin injections)

Question 57

How does the process of agglutination enhance the immune response?

Answer 57

The clumping together of particles or cells by antibodies

Enhances pathogen recognition because the clumping makes it easier for inane immune cells to find and recognize pathogens (eg. phagocytes can engulf and eliminate pathogens more effectively)

Agglutination can also neutralize toxins by binding to them and cause aggregation, which inhibits interaction with host cells (not able to damage)

Question 58

What is the cause of increased heat and redness during an inflammation event?

Answer 58

Vasodilation caused by histamines allows permeability of blood vessels leading to redness

Cytokines are released, they attract immune cells that cause temperature to rise

Question 59

How do these antibodies contribute to allergic reactions, and what role does immunoglobulin E (IgE) play in this process?

Answer 59

The body overproduces IGE where the mast cells are bound. At the second exposure, mast cells which are primed with ige release chemicals that cause symptoms

Question 60

Could living in a sterile environment and limiting early childhood exposure to infections contribute to a higher prevalence of allergies in developed countries?

Answer 60

Reduced exposure to microbes during early childhood can prevent access to protective factors against infections (hygiene hypothesis, combo of genes and environment)

Question 61

Explore the different types of hypersensitivity reactions. What can these reactions cause, and how do they impact the body?

Answer 61

Allergies- they can cause short term discomfort and delayed responses, such as with poison ivy
Histamine and chemical release causes vasodilation and mucus secretion

Anaphylactic shock- life threatening drop in blood pressure due to increased permeability of capillaries
Autoimmune disorders – killer T cells or antibodies attack the bodys own cells as if they were foreign

Multiple sclerosis – T cells attack mylin which is the shield of nerve fibers. This causes central nervous system disfunction, double vision, and muscular weakness

Lupus - queen kath, face rash, fever, joint pain
Produces high levels of anti-DNA antibodies
CNS, heart, and kidney damage

Question 62

Proceed to the more advanced topics of MHC proteins and naive B cells. What role do MHC proteins play in the immune response, and why do naive B cells require inspection by helper T cells before triggering an immune response?

Answer 62

MHC Proteins: cell surface proteins responsible for presenting antigens to T-cells–
Found on dendritic cells, macrophages, and B cells
Act as a communication tool to show immune system what is happening inside the cells, so that infected cells can be eliminated

Naive B cells: have not encountered their specific antigen, require inspection from helper T cells to trigger immune response, known as T-cell dependent activation of b cells

Question 63

Delve into the role of helper T cells in the adaptive immune response. How do they contribute to activating and regulating other immune cells, such as cytotoxic T cells and B cells?

Answer 63

Helper T are the decision maker. They recruit macrophages, sometimes killer T cells, and B cells
Also activate specific memory T cells

Cytotoxic T cell – specialize in recognizing or killing abnormal or infect
Antigen specific, attack when activated by an antigen

Question 64

understand the challenges around AIDS as a disease. Why is it a particularly difficult disease to treat, and what causes it?

Answer 64

The biggest challenge AIDs presents in the body is the

Targets B cells (responsible for producing antibodies), so you can’t fight off anything

Question 65

As we navigate the immune system’s complexities, we must also become equipped to debunk common misconceptions about immunity. Can vaccines cause autism or weaken the immune system?

Answer 65

Autism – girl no! There is no correlation or scientific data, it is a genetic disorder that happens during pregnancy

Weakening immune system – vaccines strengthen immune systems by introducing your body to a virus or pathogen, and by activating memory B cells.

Question 66

Is it accurate to say that natural immunity is superior to vaccine-acquired immunity, or that inflammation is always harmful?

Answer 66

Regardless of how the body is exposed to an infection the same process happens whether or not it is acquired from an infection or a vaccine. What differs when the body is exposed to a pathogen via vaccine or infection is the strength of the immune response, which are the symptoms that present themselves when a person falls ill.

inflammation is the body’s protective response against infection or injury. Cells of our immune system travel to the site of injury or irritation causing an inflammatory response. Widening of local blood vessels allow fluid and immune cells to be surrounding the site and protection occurs.

Question 67

What about the theory that mRNA vaccines can alter human DNA? Do vaccines trigger autoimmune diseases, allergies or have harmful side effects that outweigh their benefits?

Answer 67

There is a crucial difference between DNA and mRNA.

DNA makes up our genetic code, is larger, double stranded and very long. DNA is protected by the nucleus.
mRNA is a single stranded copy of a small part of the DNA, which is often released to send instructions to other parts of the cells. The mRNA is quickly broken down by the body, and it never enters the nucleus. Thus it cannot affect or combine with our DNA in any way to change our genetic code.

The only relationship between vaccines and allergies is when the person already has an allergy to something in the vaccine, but it is not developed because of exposure to the vaccine, it is simply a reaction to a pre-existing allergy.

The allergen found in vaccines is very minimal, it does not contain enough to cause an entire immune response to result in an allergic reaction.
It is simply an overreaction when allergens are sensed, this reaction can not result in the spontaneous development of autoimmune diseases.

Vaccines have been used to eradicate serious diseases and protect us against the serious symptoms of others.

The benefits of vaccines and their ability to mitigate serious symptoms or even death in the case of some diseases, outweigh the potential side effects that may occur.

These side effects might be a sore arm or maybe even feelings of some of the symptoms of the disease you are being vaccinated against, but those are much less severe than the effects of a disease on an unvaccinated person.