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AP Biology > The Human Immune System > Flashcards

The Human Immune System Flashcards

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1
Q

~First line of nonspecific defense

A

● Barrier that helps prevent pathogens from entering the body

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2
Q

~Pathogens

A

● Things that cause disease

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3
Q

~Second line of nonspecific defense

A

● Menat to limit the spread of invaders in advance of specific immune responses
● Microbes that get into the body encounter this

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4
Q

~Histamine

A

● Triggers vasodilation that increases blood supply to the area, bringing more phagocytes
● Secreted by basophils and mast cells, found in the connective tissue
● Responsible for the symptoms of the common cold: sneezing, coughing, redness, itchy eyes, and runny nose

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5
Q

~Vasodilation

A

● Enlargement of blood vessels

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6
Q

~Basophils

A

● A type of circulating white blood cell

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7
Q

~Prostaglandins

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● Further promote blood flow tot he area

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8
Q

~Chemokines

A

● Secreted by blood vessel endothelium and monocytes

● Also attract phagocytes to the area

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9
Q

~Pyrogens

A

● Released by certain leukocytes

● Increase body temperature to speed up the immune system and make it more difficult for microbes to function

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10
Q

~Phagocytes

A

● Ingest invading fungal and bacterial microbes
● Two types: neutrophils and macrophages
● Migrate to an infected site in response to local chemical attractants
● Response is called chemotaxis

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11
Q

~Neutrophils

A

● Engulf microbes and die within a few days

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12
Q

~Monocytes

A

● Transform into macrophages
● Extend pseudopods
● Engulf huge numbers of microbes over a long period of time
● Digest hte microbes with a combination of lysozyme nad two toxic forms of oxygen: superoxide anion and nitric oxide

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13
Q

~Complement

A

● A group of proteins

● Leads ot the lysis (bursting) of invading cells

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14
Q

~Interferons

A

● Block cell-to-cell viral infections

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15
Q

~Natural killer (NK) cells

A

● Destroy virus-infected body cells (as well as cancerous cells)
● Attack the cell membrane, causing it to lyse and die

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16
Q

~Adaptive third line of defense

A

● Relies on B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes, hwich arise from stem cells in bone marrow
● Once mature, both cell types circulat ein the blood, lymph, and lymphatic tissue (spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, and adenoids)
● Both cell types recognize different specific antigens

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17
Q

~Recognition

A

● Antigen receptors on B and T lymphocytes recognize specific antigens or epitopes by binding to them
● In order to recognize an antigen, it must be presented to a B or T cell by an antigen-presenting cell

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18
Q

~Antigens

A

● Any substance that elicits an immune response from B cell or T cells

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19
Q

~Epitopes

A

● An accessible piece of an antigen that elicits an immune response from a B or T cell
● Each B cell displays specificity for one particular epitope

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20
Q

~Activation Phase

A

● The binding of an antien receptor activates B and T cells, causing them to undergo rapid cell division
● The cell form populations of effector cells and memory cells

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21
Q

~Effector phase

A

● After being activated, B cells produce a humoral response
- They produce anitibodies
● T cells engage in a cell-mediated response

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22
Q

~Cell-mediated immune response

A

● Begins when T cell antigen receptors recognize and bind to antigens that display on the surface of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) by a molecule called MHC

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23
Q

~Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)/Human leukocyte antigens (HLA)

A

● Collection of cell surface markers that identify the cells as self
● No two people, except identical twins, have the same MHC markers
● Class I and Class II
● APCs have both MHCI and MHCII on the cell surface

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24
Q

~Memory cells

A

● Cells that can rapidly respond to any exposure to the same antigen many eyars later
● Responsible for immunological memory
● Remain in the body for the rest of one’s life and can rapidly respond to any future exposure to the same antigen

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25
Q

~T cells

A

● Form in bone marro

● Mature in the thymus gland

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26
Q

~Helper T cells/CD4 cells

A

● Are activated by an interaction with an APC
● Once activated, Helper T cells announce to the immune system that foreign antigens have entered hte body
● Trigger both humoral and cell-mediated immune response
● Activate other Helpter T cells and cytotoxic T cells and B cells by releasing cytokines, interleukin-1 (Il-1) and interleukin-2 (Il-2)
● Targeted by HIV

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27
Q

~Cytotoxic T cells/Killer T cells/CD8 cells

A

● Activated by helper T cells
● Kill body cells infected with pathogens as well as cancer cells
● Cell-mediated immune response
● Proliferates and differentiates into an effector cell and a memory cell
● Activated Cytotoxic T cells attack and kill infected cells by releasing perforin, granzymes that cause the cell to lyse and die
● Infecting microbes are released into the blood or tissue and are disposed of by circulating antibodies

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28
Q

~Perforin

A

● A protein that forms pores in the target cell’s membrane

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29
Q

~Granzymes

A

● Enzymes that break down proteins

30
Q

~B cells

A

● Mature in bone marrow
● A typical B lymphocyte or B cell has about 100,000 identical antigen receptors on its surface that it sues to recognize pathogens
● Every B cell has a differnet antigen receptor

31
Q

~Antigen receptor on B cell

A

● Y-shaped molecule consisting of 4 polypeptide chains: 2 identical heavy chains and 2 identical light chains
● Each chain has constant and variable regions
● Antibodies secreted by B cells are soluble forms of these antigen receptors

32
Q

~Humoral immune response

A

● Produce antibodies (immunoglobins)
● When they beocme activated, B cells secrete about 2000 antibodies per second over the cell’s 4-5 day life span
● B cell becomes activated when an APC presents an antigen or epitope on its cell surface using a class II MHC molecule
● A helper T cell that recognizes thies epitope-MHC moleucle complex is activated with the aid of cytokines secreted from the APC
● The B cell undergoes multiple cell division once activated

33
Q

~Effector cells/Plasma cells (B)

A

● Secrete antibodies
● The effector cells are short-lived and begin battle immediately
- Neutralize or destroy all of those idntified antigens and any pathogen that produces them

34
Q

~Self-tolerance

A

● The immune system exhibits this

● Does not attack body cells

35
Q

~Autoimmune disease

A

● Somtimes immature lymphocytes develop that have antigen receptors specific for hte body’s own cells
- If allowed to escape, these cells oudl attackthe body’s cells
● The system cannot properly distringuish between self and nonself

36
Q

~Self-reactivity

A

● To avoid autoimmune disease, lymphocytes are tested for self-reactivity as they mature in the bone marrow
● B and T cells that are idntified as self-reactive are destroyed by apoptosis

37
Q

~Apoptosis

A

● Programmed cell death

38
Q

~Regulatory T cells

A

● Inhibit the activation of the immune system in response to self-antigens
● Secrete interleukin-10 (Il-10)

39
Q

~Class I MHC molecuels

A

● Found on the surfaces of every nucleated body cells

40
Q

~Class II MHC molecules

A

● Found on specialized cells, including macrophages, B cells, dendritic cells, and activated T cells

41
Q

~Antigen-presenting cells (APCs)

A

● Present an antigen or piece of an antigen, an epitope, to the immune system
● Begins when an APC (macrophage, dendritic cell or B cell) takes in an antigen
● Either hte APC becomes infected witht he antigen or engulfs it

42
Q

~Clonal selection

A

● One particular lymphocyte that matches a specific antigen or epitope, called antigenic determinant, is identified and activated
● Once activated, the lymphocyte divide rapidly, forming a population of clones that develop into effector and memory cells
● The effector cells are short-lived and begin battle immediately
● The remaining clones develop into long-term memory cells

43
Q

~Antibodies/immunoglobins

A

● A group of globular proteins
● Each antibody molecule is a Y-shaped molecule consisting of four popypeptide chians (2 heavy, 2 light, joined by disulfide bridges)
● Consists of four unchanging or constant regions (C) and four variable regions (V)
● Tips of the Y have specific shapes and are htebinding sites for different antigens
● Chosedn by clonal selection

44
Q

~Immunological memory

A

● The second exposure is more rapid and more intense than the primary immune response

45
Q

~Passive immunity

A

● Temporary
● Antibodies are transferred to an individual from someone else
● Ex) maternal antibodies that pass through the placenta tot he developing fetus or through breast milk to the baby
● Ex) A person with a weak immune system oftern receives an injection of gamma globulin (IgG), which are antibodies culled from many people, to boost the weak immune system

46
Q

~Active immunity

A

● Permanent
● The individual makes his/her own antibodies after being ill nad recovering or after being given an immunization or vaccine

47
Q

~Vaccine

A

● Contains dead or live viruses or enough of the outer coat of a virus to stimulate a full immune response and to impart lifelong immunity

48
Q

~Transfusion reaction

A

● GIving the wrong blood type to someone can cuase a transfusion reaction or even death
● COmes if the recipient has antibodies to the donor’s antigens

49
Q

~Cross-match

A

● Before someone receives a transfusion of blood, two samples of donor and recipient blood must be mixed to determine compatibility

50
Q

~Universal donor

A

● Blood type O

● No blood cell antigens to be clumped by the recipient’s blood

51
Q

~Universal recipient

A

● Blood type AB

● No antibodies to clump thedonor’s blood

52
Q

~Rh factor

A

● Another antigen located on the surface of red blood cells
● Most of the population (85%) has the antigen and are called Rh+
● THose without the antigen (15%) are Rh-

53
Q

~AIDS

A

● Acquired immune deficiency disease
● Highly susceptible to opportunistic diseases, infections, and cancers that take advantage of a collapsed immune system
● HIV causes AIDS, attacks cells that bear CD4 molecules ont heir surface, mainly helpter T cells

54
Q

~HIV

A

● Human immunodeficiency virus
● Retrovirus
● Once inside a cell, it reverse transcribes itself, using the enzyme reverse transcriptase, and integrates the newly formed DNA intot he host cell genome
● Reminas in the nucleus as a provirus, directing the production of new viruses

55
Q

~Positive feedback

A

● Enhances an already existing process until some endpoint or maximum rate is reached
● Ex) When a helper T cell becomes activated by a MHCII molecule, it releases two cytokines, Il-1 and Il-2
- Il-2 stimualtes B cells and other T cells into action
- Il-1 enhaces hte activity of the already activated helper T cells, stimulating them more until they are activated to a maximum

56
Q

~Negative feedback

A

● A means to achieve stability

57
Q

~Allergies

A

● Hypersensitve immuner esponses to certain substances called allergens
● Involve the release of histamine, an anti-inflammatory agent, which causes blood veessesl to dilate
● Normal reaciton involves redness, runny nose, and itchy eyes

58
Q

~Antihistamines

A

● Can normally counteract the symptoms of allergies

59
Q

~Anaphylactic shock

A

● An acute allergic response can result in a life-threatening response
● Cn aresult in death within minutes

60
Q

~Antibiotics

A

● Medicines that kill bacteria or fungi

● Where vaccines are given to prevent illness caused by viruses, antibiotics are administered after a person is sick

61
Q

~Autoimmune disease Example

A

● Multiple sclerosis
● Lupus
● Arthritis
● juvenile diabetes

62
Q

~Multiple sclerosis

A

● The immune system attacks the myelin sheath surrounding certain neurons in the CNS

63
Q

~Monoclonal antibodies

A

● Antibodies produced by a single B cell that have been selected because they produce one specific antibody
● Important in research and in the treatment and diagnosis of certain diseases

64
Q

~Specificity

A

● The entire system depends ont he matching of antigens to antigen receptors and hte matching of antigens to antibodies

65
Q

~Diversity

A

● A wide variety of different cell types defend our bodeies from pathogens

66
Q

~Memory cells

A

● B and T memory cells circulate for a lifetime

67
Q

~Capacity to distinguish self form nonself

A

● Most of hte time, the immune system doesnot attack healthy body cells (self-tolerance)

68
Q

~What does the first line of nonspecific defense include?

A

● Skin
● Mucous membranes, which release mucus that contains antimicrobial substances including lysozyme
● Cilia in the respiratory system to sweep out mucus with its trapped microbes
● Stomach acid

69
Q

~What does the second line of nonspecific defense include?

A 
● Inflammatory response
- Histamine
- Prostaglandins
- Chemokines
- pyrogens
● Phagocytes
● Complement
● Interferons
● Natural killer (NK) cells
70
Q

~What are the three stages of adaptive immune response?

A

● Recognition
● Activation phase
● Effector phase

71
Q

~How do APCs break apart antigen once they are inside the host?

A

● Enzymes break apart the antigen into fragments and attach them to an MHC molecule int he cytoplasm
● The MHC molecule, with the antigen fragment attached, then moves to the surface of hte cell and displays it
● Other cells of the immune system, such as T cells or other B cells, become activated if they can properly bind with the exposed antigen

72
Q

~What are the four characteristics of the immune system?

A

● Specificity
● Diveristy
● Memory
● Capacity to distinguish self from nonself

AP Biology (15 decks)

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