The Fascist State, 1925-1940 Flashcards
What did Mussolini and the Fascists look to do after they had achieved control?
After Mussolini and the Fascists had achieved control and dominated Italian politics, they looked for new ways to strengthen their control over the Italian population. They did this by using a mixture of consent and control.
Indoctrination of education and Youth.
The Fascist regime believed it was important to indoctrinate young people so they would support the new state. It created new organisations to do this and changed the curriculum. Although not all young people became Fascists as a result, it did have some success.
What happened in schools regarding schools?
Fascist education policies from 1929 focused on obedience and indoctrination rather than improving standards. From the late 1920s, these policies were introduced:
- A portrait of Mussolini was to be hung up in every classroom. Teachers had to refer to his genius and heroic qualities.
- Wall posters emphasised fascist achievements.
- Every school day began with Fascist slogans.
- Primary school children were taught to read by using books with Fascist cartoons and quotations by Mussolini. Children were taught unquestioning obedience.
- From 1928, there was only one authorised textbook, focusing on Italian achievements in History and literature.
- There was an increased emphasis on sport and exercise, as well as on religious instruction.
What happened to teachers who did not agree?
Teachers who did not agree with these changes were dismissed, and from 1931 those who had remained had to take a loyalty oath to the regime. In 1933, all teachers were required to be members of the PNF.
What about in the universities?
The Govt believed that university students would have been indoctrinated while at school, so they were less of a priority. Students were still expected to join the Gioventi Universitaria Fascista, or University Fascist Youth. There were some advantages to joining - students could benefit from:
- use of sports facilities.
- half-price admission to entertainment.
- partial exemption from military service.
- enhanced career prospects.
What happened to the number of university of university students?
The number of university students increased greatly and came from a diverse range of backgrounds. University students were seen as the future of the Fascist movement.
The university staff were the biggest problem for the Fascists. Professors and lecturers were harder to dismiss than teachers and more resistant to threats. Some took the loyalty oaths and joined the PNF as a formality and a few refused. Some, however, were convinced Fascists.
What were the Fascist youth movements?
In 1926, youth organisations were set up for children and teenagers outside of school, under the umbrella organisation Opera Nazionale Balilla, known as the ONB or Balilla.
The children were exposed to Fascist propaganda but also took part in a wide range of activities. Girls were given more traditionally feminine activities so they could be good Fascist wives in the future. The organisations offered free sports facilities, holidays at the seaside for urban children and scholarships for the gifted.
Members had to swear a loyalthy oath, learn a special Balilla creed and wear a uniform. These organisations were not popular with all children and faced opposition from rival organisations run by the Catholic Church. The Church’s movement was eventually banned, after which membership rapidly rose, only to collapse completely as soon as Muussolini was removed from power.
What was the Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro?
Mussolini also wanted to bring the adult population of Italy closer to Fascism. The Fascists introduced adult leisure programmes and facilities. These programmes were organised by the Opera Nazionale Dopolavoro, established in 1925. It tried to attract ordinary people to fascism via subsidised activities such as arts, theatre and poetry. There were summer camps and sports facilities, as well as the provision of clothing for poorer people. Membership rose rapidly. Nearly every town had its own Dopolavoro clubhouse by the mid-1930s. It allowed the Fascists to manipulate public opinion and promote propaganda in a more subtle way.
Press control and censorship.
Mussolini, a former journalist, knew how powerful the press could be. He took steps to censor and control it. The Press Law of December 1925 ensured that only registered journalists could write for the newspapers, and the Fascists controlled the registers. Editors who kept their jobs after 1925 knew that any opposition messages would lead to severe consequences.
Censorship was initially controlled by Mussolini’s press office. This became the expanded Ministry of Propaganda in 1935, and was renamed the Ministry of Popular Culture in 1937. It introduced strict censorship of newspapers, radio, film, theatre and foreign publications. Newspapers were not allowed to publish anti-Fascist opinion or negative stories.
How did the Fascists promote their propaganda messages?
The Fascists used radio and cinemas to promote their propaganda messages.
How did they use the cinema?
The Italian Fascists took cinema seriously, building a school of cinematography in 1935. Film directors had a fair degree of freedom so long as they did not criticise fascism or the regime. In 1934, the General Directorate of Cinema was created, which regulated the cinema and brought all film in line with Fascist ideology. In 1938, the regime took over Italy’s Hollywood, Cinecitta and after that it made several Fascist films. Films by the Fascist film agency portrayed current events, glorifying the regime and its successes. Everyone had to sit through these newsreels if they wanted to watch a film.
How did they use the radio?
Radio was important because it could be received in rural and remote areas and did not require literacy. Radio became popular in Italy soon after its arrival in 1924-25. A special radio agency{the ERR} was set up in 1933 and was led by the PNF secretary. Mussolini expanded Italian radio during the Second World War and installed more than 2 million radio sets in marketplaces, schools, factories and military facilities. It reached a huge number of people and was important channel of Fascist propaganda. Mussolini’s major speeches were broadcast live and played via loudspeakers.
What was the cult of IL Duce?
The Fascists tried to create a cult of personality around Mussolini, presenting him as a heroic, ideal leader. It aimed to ensure Mussolini’s popularity and that of the regime. The media was actively used to promote the cult of IL Duce, and showed him as a man of energy and action. He was portrayed as the perfect role model for Italian men. Aspects that made him seem weak were never mentioned.
The cult of IL Duce convinced many Italians that there was no realistic alternative to Mussolini, and some became fervent fans. Others were more sceptical, although they tencded not to express their opinions for fear of repression. Like with education, it iss hard to know how genuine people’s enthusiasm was for the cult of IL Duce.
What was the influence of Fascist culture?
Mussolini used culture for propaganda purposes. In 1926, the National Fascist Culture Institute was established to spread Fascist culture to the masses. The Fascists wanted to create a new modern Italian culture based on the traditions of a more glorious past.
In art, this meant looking to ancient Rome for inspiration or experimenting with modernist and abstract styles. Art frequently portrayed the people trying to make Italy a great nation.
The PNF also wanted architecture as a propaganda tool. Mussolini wanted to show how powerful his regime was and used vast modernist buildings to do this.
The regime was not very successful at creating a Fascist literary intelligentisa, as many writers remained disengaged from Fascism.
How did Mussolini use repression and terror?
After Mussolini had established his dictatorship, violence formerly a constant feature of fascism, decreased as a way to maintain control. Repression was used in other ways. The police and local govt had wide-ranging powers, and there was a climate of fear created by previous Fascist violence.
What was the role of the security services?
The police, militia and security services were used to threaten, imprison and punish political opponents. Many political opponents were forced into exile and some were assassinated there. The attempted assassination of Mussolini in 1926 led to an increase in repression.
The Special Tribunal was set up in 1926 under the Law for the Defence of the State. These tribunals judged those thought to be a danger to the state. It met 720 times from 1927 to 1943, and considered 13,547 cases.
The Organizzazione Vigilanza Repressione AntiFascismo was set up in 1927. This was a secret police organisation that had extensive powers to make arrests, hold people without trial, search people and places, tap telephones and intercept post.
The militia also helped to establish a climate of repression and fear. It was used to intimidate potential political opponents, assault those who were not co-operating and seize property.
The Fascists set up prisons in remote areas to house political opponents. Ten thousand people were sent there during the lifespan of the Fascist regime. This was not on the same scale as the Nazi concentration camps or the Russian gulags, but worked as an effective threat to those tempted to oppose the regime.
What were the Anti-Semitic decrees?
Italian Fascism did not have the same emphasis on anti-semitism as in Nazi Germany. Some Fascists were anti-Semitic but this was not the norm. In 1937, the Italian foreign secretary, Count Galeazzo Giano, did not support anti-semitic policies and the regime even allowed 3,000 German jews to enter the countrery as refugees from Nazi Germany. This changed suddenly in 1937. By 1938, anti-semitic legislation was introduced and Jewish freedoms and living standards declined rapidly.
How did the Italian racial laws develop?
July 1938: The regime officially supported an anti-Semitic document called the manifesto of Racial Scientists which argued that Jews were not part of the Italian race.
August 1938: All foreign-born Jews were banned from state schools.
September 1938: All Jews were banned from state schools. Jews were banned from teaching in state schools: separate schools were established.
October 1938: Jews were excluded from membership of the PNF and other Fascist organisations.
November 1938: Jews were not allowed to marry non-Jews. Jews were excluded from the military and banking. Foreign Jews were expelled.
How consistent was their approach?
The Italian anti-semitic laws were not consistently applied. Many government and Fascist officials did not apply the laws, either for religious or moral reasons or because they had close connections to Jewish families or friends. The anti-semitic laws were unpopular with the majority of Italians, and academics, business elites and the Church spoke out against them. It lost the Fascist movement support from previously loyal people.
After 1943, when the Nazis returned Mussolini to power, he issued a decree to confisicate all Jewish property and round up all Jews. It was this action that led to the deportation of 9,000 Italian Jews to Nazi death camps. Only 600 survived.
How did Mussolini attempt to reduce the power of the monarchy and the conservative elites?
Mussolini attempted to reduce the power of the monarchy and conservative elites in order to gain more power for himself and the Fascists. He attempted to keep their support after gaining power so that it would be hard to challenge regime.
How was the monarchy?
The monarchy was important because of its connections to the judiciary, civil service and army. The Fascist state needed the support of all of these groups, and the King’s support gave the regime legitimacy. The King was not a strong supporter of fascism but did not oppose it either. He gained titles and lands from Fascist acttions abroad. He signed most of Mussolini’s decrees and did not try to curb fascism by using the army.
His power was reduced under the Fascist state. The Fascist Grand Council was given the power to fix the succession to the throne because the heir apparent had anti-Fascist sympathies. The King’s command over the armed forces was transferred to Mussolini in wartime, and Mussolini did not ask the King’s advice on policy.
King Victor Emmanuel III did resist some elements of fascism, for example those relating to the army, and refused to allow the Fascist symbol to be included in the Italian flag. He was critical of the anti-Semitic laws but still signed them. He had largely retired from public life by 1930, although he ordered Mussolini’s arrest in 1943.
How was the judiciary?
Anti-Fascist jidges were removed from their posts and replaced with Fascists, meaning that the judiciary was under Mussolini’s control. Imprisonment without trial became more frequent and Mussolini sometimes intervened to influence verdicts. Apart from the Special Tribunals, however, the system remained unchanged.
How was the civil service?
Mussolini promised to make cuts to the civil service on coming to power. There were some cuts from 1922 to 1924 but otherwise little changed. By 1930, the Civil Service was expanding again. In 1935, membership of the PNF was made compiulsory for civil servants, and the number of civil servants was greatly increased in order to offer jobs to Fascists.
Nationalists.
Fascism stressed Nationalist themes in order to appeal to Nationalist groups, emphasising the importance of Italian
culture and identity.
The armed forces.
Mussolini attempted to appeal to the armed forces via the following policies:
- expansion of the armed forces.
- aggressive foreign policy.
- promoting senior generals.
Leading members of the armed forces gave Mussolini their support. Increasingly, senior army positions were given to Fascists, to cement the loyalty of the army to the state. The armed forces were disunited and disorganised, and Mussolini never reorganised them. This ended up being disastrous in the Second World War.
Central and local government.
Mussolini centralised power in the years 1925-27. He did not share power with his ministers, who were meant to implement Mussolini’s decisions obediently. Mussolini took the following key positions for himself:
- Head of Foreign Affairs.
- Minister of the Interior.
- Minister of all the armed forces.
What happened to the Italian Parliament?
Mussolini quickly sidelined the Italian Parliament. In 1926, it lost its power to:
- discuss policy.
- debate.
- amend proposed legislation.
It became more irrevelant after all opposition political parties were banned and free elections ended. Parliament became full of Fascist supporters who rubber-stamped Fascist laws.
In January 1939, the Italian parliament was replaced by the Chamber of Fasces and Corporations, part of Mussolini’s wish to establish a regime with power centralised in his hands.
