Protest, agitation and parliamentary reform in Britain, c1780-1928. Flashcards
1
Q
In the 18th century, what the regulations for voting?
A
People had to be over 21 and male before they were allowed a vote in general elections.
2
Q
What were some of the other regulations?
A
- In order to qualify for a vote in a county, adult men had to own a substantial amount of property.
- To qualify for a vote in a borough, a whole range of various different regulations applied.
- Thus, from a total estimated population of around 8 million people, about 439,000 people were entitled to vote in general elections.
3
Q
What happened at the end of the 19th century?
A
This changed. The only qualification apart from being male, was that a person had to be a householder or to have occupied their house or lodgings.
4
Q
When did women get the universal vote?
A
1928.
5
Q
When was the General Strike?
A
1926.
6
Q
When was Peterloo?
A
1819.
7
Q
When was the first Chartist petition?
A
1839.
8
Q
When was the Liberal Party formed?
A
1859.
9
Q
When was the Contagious diseases Act passed?
A
1864.
10
Q
When was the Labour Party formed?
A
1900.
11
Q
When was the WSPU formed?
A
1903.
12
Q
What did the French Revolution act as?
A
It acted as inspiration to some people who wanted radical change.
13
Q
Who has power in Britain at this time?
A
The upper classes and the aristocrats had the majority of the power.
14
Q
Which groups do not have power but are starting to ask for it?
A
Women wanted to have power and they wanted to be equal to men. The suffrage campaign arose. They wanted the vote.
15
Q
What was representation?
A
- Many constituencies returned more than 1 MP.
- The allocation of MP’s to different parts of the country was not updated.
- There was a very strong bias towards the South of England - other areas were underrepresented.
- MP’s were not paid.
- MP’s also had to pay their own electoral expenses.
16
Q
What was the Crown at that time?
A
- The principle of a monarchy with limited powers.
- The glorious revolution established the supremacy of parliament over the monarch.
- The Bill of Rights forced the monarch to consult regularly with Parliament.
- The monarch retains powers but is limited in key ways .
17
Q
What was the House of Commons at that time?
A
The House of Commons consisted entirely of men, mostly of substantial property and since 1688, entirely of Anglicans. Virtually, all members representing county seats were landed gentry.
18
Q
What was the House of Lords at that time?
A
It was more powerful than today. Unelected, the Lords would pass their titles on to their eldest son. Frequently, Prime Ministers were selected from the House of Lords rather than the Commons.
19
Q
What were Whigs?
A
They were more likely to question power of the monarch and defend power of Parliament. Generally more sympathetic to reform. Many landowners came from industrial backgrounds.
20
Q
What were Tories?
A
Tories were particularly keen to defend the power of the monarch and Church of England. Protective of the church’s privileges. Resistant to change/reform. Nearly all Tories came from landowners, aristocratic backgrounds.
21
Q
What were Radicals?
A
Radicals was the name given to supporters of Parliamentary reform in late 18th century.
22
Q
What were voters like at the time?
A
- In 1780, there were 214,000 voters out of a total population of around eight million.
- Eligibility depended on where you lived - it almost always depended on property ownership.
- Huge inconsistencies - there was one system for rural areas but there were many different systems in towns within and across regions.
- People with lots of land or who owned land in different parts were often entitled to multiple votes.
23
Q
What happened at the end of the Napoleonic war?
A
Britain emerged from the war victorious. Britain was firmly established as the greatest of the Great Powers, with the largest navy, the biggest share of world trade, the most developed industry and London was the financial capital of the world. However, this was tempered by relief and trepidation. The war had been by far the longest and the costliest war since the 15th century. The national debt had vastly increased. Troops were seeking employment. This had a negative impact on the economy.
24
Q
What happened in terms of recession and unemployment?
A
30,000 troops returned from the battlefield looking for work. There were no pensions or allowances - they needed employment to survive. At the same time, many industries were laying off workers. Demand was falling in key areas such as textiles and coal, iron and engineering.
25
What about the national budget?
National Debt had grown to £861 million. This meant that the government would have to raise money in tax in order to pay the interest. During the war, part of these costs had been met by the introduction of income tax and Liverpool's government had promised would only be in place for as the war continued. They introduced taxation on everyday items. This raised the price of these items and had a disproportionate impact on the poor.
26
What were the Corn laws?
During the war, Britain had to rely on home grown production of wheat to meet the demand for bread. When the war ended, the landowners demanded a ban on imports of foreign wheat. The result was the corn laws which imposed tariffs on foreign wheat and effectively banned imports until the price of wheat reached 80 shillings a quarter.
27
What does political radicalism mean?
The term political radicalism means political principles focused on altering social structures through revolutionary means.
28
What were the key ideas behind the French revolution?
- The early part of the revolution was motivated by political concepts such as sovereignty and constitutionalism.
- Another key revolutionary idea was the codification and legal protection of natural rights.
- Another key revolutionary idea was anti-clericalism which sought to reform the Catholic Church reducing political influence and corruption.
29
Who was Edmund Burke?
Edmund Burke was an Irish statesman. He aligned himself with the Whigs but the conservative faction. He was alarmed by the reaction to the French revolution. His most important work was Reflections on the Revolution in France.
30
What were the key ideas of the book?
- Revolutionary change is always accompanied by violence.
- Government derives its authority from custom and tradition.
- Liberty needs to be restrained in order to preserve the contract between government and the governed.
- Britain's government is 'stable and wise'
31
Who was Thomas Paine?
- In 1774, Thomas Paine sailed to Philadelphia.
- He spent 13 years in America alongside the other 'founding fathers'.
- In 1787, he travelled to France where he witnessed the drama of the revolution. Again he supported he supported the French citizens.
- His most famous work, The Rights of Man was written as a reply to Burke and a defence of Richard Burke.
32
What were the key ideas of the book?
- Tradition is not always a good thing.
- The decisions of previous generations should not be able to bind those that follow.
- Government should protect all citizens equally.
- Paine argued the French revolution emerged from reason and rational thought.
- Paine advocated a range of civil rights including universal male suffrage and free education.
33
Who were the London Corresponding Society?
- 1792-93.
- Thomas Hardy and John Horne Tooke.
- Artisans and small tradesmen. 3,000 members at its peak. 6,000 signed a petition in 1793 saying they supported the society.
Aims:
- Democratic reform.
- Universal male suffrage.
- Annual parliaments.
Methods:
- Published pamphlets promoting their view.
- Made it clear that their methods would be peaceful.
- Passed a series of resolutions.
34
What were the Spa fields meetings?
- Henry Hunt.
- 1816.
- 10,000 people attended.
Aims:
- Show support for a petition about parliamentary reform.
- Universal male suffrage, annual general elections and secret ballots.
Methods:
- Two public meetings at Spa Fields, London.
- Peaceful.
- After the second meeting, a group of radical members of the audience marched to the tower of London.
What happened?:
- The rioters were dispersed and leaders arrested and put on trial.
- The trials exposed the role of government informers and spies at Spa fields.
- The defense was able to prove that it was a government informer who had encouraged the riot.
- The jury therefore acquitted those on trial.
35
What was the Pentridge rising?
- William Oliver.
- Jeremiah Brandreth.
- 300 unemployed laborers from rural villages.
Aims:
- To get workers' rights.
- Stronger right to vote.
- To overthrow the Tory government.
Methods:
- Marching with pikes, forks and a few guns to Nottingham.
What happened?:
- Soldiers intercepted the rebels. 80 were arrested.
- Newspapers reported the agent provocateurs role in the uprising and blamed the government rather than the protesters for the affair.
- 45 men were tried for treason, 14 men were transported and three leaders, including Brandreth were hanged and beheaded in public.
36
What was the Peterloo massacre?
- Henry Hunt.
- Samuel Bamford.
- 50-60,000 people.
Aims:
- Universal male suffrage.
- Annual parliament.
Methods:
- Played patriotic tunes such as Rule Britannia.
- Waved banners.
What happened:
- Local magistrates panicked and the local yeomanry were sent into the crow to arrest Hunt.
- Stones were allegedly thrown and the troops reacted by hacking at the crowd with their sabres.
- Between 11-15 people were killed and over 400 were injured.
- There was a huge backlash against the government and Peterloo became a symbol of savage repression of working class people by an authoritarian government.
37
What was the response to the London Corresponding society?
- The government suspended habeas corpus twice in 1794. This allowed the government to a arrest potential threats without having to give them a trial..
- In 1794, 13 members of the London Corresponding Society were tried for treason - charges ranged from inciting revolutionary plans to attempts to attack the king. The jury refused to accept the evidence and acquitted all defendants.
38
What did the Treason act do?
1} Extend the idea of treason to include ideas that were intended to intimidate the House of Parliament even if no action was taken. This law was used to outlaw works of Thomas Paine and restrict publication of protest pamphlets.
Seditious meetings act:
- Banned public meetings of over 50 people.
- Made it illegal to rent a hall for lecturing and debating without a magistrate's licence.
39
What was control of the media?
In 1797, Stamp Tax, a tax on printed media was increased to make newspapers harder to afford and prevent the less well off from buying them.
In 1798, the Newspaper Regulation Act was passed to force newspapers to register with the aim of limiting their ability to publish critical articles.
40
What were the gagging acts?
- Made the temporary Treason and seditious meetings act permanent and added more restrictions. Banned any society that required public meetings and limitations on public meetings.
41
What were the six acts?
- The Training Prevention Act: stopped civilians learning how to use weapons.
- The seizure of Arms act: Allowed magistrates the right to seize weapons.
- Seditious meetings act: Extended 1817 Act to require notice to be given to magistrates for any public meetings.
- Misdemeanours Act: This sped up the process of charging people and getting a trial.
- The Newspaper and Stamp Duties Act: This raised the stamp duty to 4d. on any publication which was at least monthly and cost less than 6d.
42
Use of Agent Provocateurs and Spies.
Government made use of agent provocateurs, individuals who went undercover within reformist groups to gather evidence of illegal activity. For example, Spa fields and Pentridge.
43
When did radical agitation begin?
It began in the early 1800s in the press.
44
Who was the 'father' of newspaper agitation?
Major John Cartwright.
45
What did Cartwright remain an ardent supporter of?
Parliamentary reform.
46
Who was William Cobbett?
He was a highly influential radical who became an MP later in 1832. He travelled around the country to learn about living and working conditions. He was a strong defender of rural ways. He was a strong critic of the government because he felt they abused their privileged position and could not justify the inequality that existed in British society.
47
What happened to the radical press?
The radical press grew in these years. Through this medium, radical ideas were shared, news was conveyed from one region to another.
48
What did Cobbett publish?
The Weekly political register in 1802. Cobbett started to embrace radical views and the weekly political register was sold for 2d and was read by thousands.
49
What did placemen mean?
Those who received incomes paid for by taxation for the 'places' they held in government.
50
Who were pensioners?
Those who received money when they retired from government.
51
Who were fund holders?
Those who lent money to the government and lived off the income they received in interest.
52
Who were parasites?
Other words used to describe all of the above.
53
What was the Hampden Club?
It was a club that was most popular in the industrial heartlands of Lancashire, Yorkshire, and the Midlands and in Central Scotland. Any man could join on payment of 1d per week.
54
What were the aims of this club?
- To win over 'respectable support for reform.
- Achieve manhood suffrage.
- Abolition of the Corn Laws.
55
What were some of the activities they did?
- Produced pamphlets.
| - Petitions.
56
Who was Henry Hunt?
Henry Hunt was most famous for his rousing speeches and was distinguished by his appearance in the way that he always wore a white top hat.
57
Who was he a hero to?
The working classes. His method was mass platform which was mass demonstrations and collections of signatures and petitions.
58
How did the unreformed political system work?
Crown: Royal assent for laws. Able to exert influence by using powers to appoint and dismiss ministers.
Parliament: Finance{ tax, spend}, law and order, foreign policy.
59
What was the House of Lords like at the time?
- Contains most government ministers.
- All Church of England bishops, leaders of the army and civil service.
- Aristocratic: i.e: wealthy landowners.
- Veto power: often side with monarch to defy the commons.
60
What was the House of Commons like at the time?
- 658 elected MPs.
- Independent: parties were loose groups, not united, controlled/disciplined.
- Unpaid, property qualification.
- Over 100 placemen depend on the Crown for their seats.
- Over 100 other MPs owed their seats to the influence of the aristocracy.
61
What were the three types of constituency?
University: 2 MPS were allocated to Cambridge university, a further 2 to Oxford university and was elected by the University of Dublin.
Counties: 188 MPs: Every county in England and Wales had 2 MPS regardless of size or population. There were 41 counties in England and 6 in Wales. A further 94 MPs were elected from Scottish and Irish counties.
Boroughs: These were towns which were, or had historically been an important port or market and had therefore been made a parliamentary borough. Most could elect 3 members of Parliament. Over 85% of Borough seats were in England and the vast majority of these were located in the South.
62
What were county seats?
Countryside seats. 40 shilling freeholders - anyone who owned freehold land or property that was worth 40 shillings a year. The 40s threshold dated back to 1430- inflation meant that 40s worth of land by 1800 varied considerably across the country e.g. in Middlesex where 1% of people could vote.
63
What were borough seats?
Towns which granted right to have members of parliament. The boroughs operated a variety of different systems for determining voting qualifications.
Scot and lot boroughs: All adult males who paid local taxes such as poor relief could vote.
Potwalloper boroughs: All men who occupied a house could vote. This meant a large electorate.
Burgage boroughs: All men who owned burgages could vote.
Corporation boroughs: Only members of the local town council could vote.
Freeman boroughs: All men who had been granted the title of freeman could vote.
Freeholder boroughs: A similar requirement to the counties.
University seats: Members of the university were eligible to vote.
64
Representation
Plural voting: most voters had more than one vote.
- Where constituencies elected 2 members of parliament. - Boroughs were located within counties and many wealthier voters would meet the eligibility criteria for both elections.
- Many wealthier landowners would have property in several places.
65
What were the criticisms of this system?
- As the constituencies were allocated using a system that had been introduced centuries earlier, they did not reflect the many changes that had taken place.
- This predominantly affected borough constituencies.
- There were also discrepancies between the counties too and this favoured the rural south where counties were often much smaller but receied equal representation.
66
What were Rotten boroughs?
In some extreme cases, there were 10 or 20 voters in a borough.
Dunwich: on the East coast of England, had virtually disappeared after coastal erosion.
Old Sarum: In Wiltshire, By 1800, had just 7 voters.
67
What were pocket boroughs?
In some boroughs with only a small electorate, they had huge influence and was able to get himself or boroughs as the landowners were seen to have them in the Commons on this basis. Landowners were able to control voters. Voting was public.
68
Elections.
Legally, elections had to take place at least every 7 years. They could be called earlier and there had to be an election following the death of the monarch. In reality, only a fraction of seats were actually contested and if there was the same number of candidates as seats available, there was no point in holding an actual election. Elections were expensive and rowdy affairs.
69
What were 3 electoral procedures?
- Public voting.
- Elections took place on the hustings.
- Rowdy.
70
Who were the Tories?
- Particularly keen to defend the monarch and the Church of England.
- Came from landowning backgrounds.
- More protective of the Church.
- More resistant to change.
71
Who were the Whigs?
- More likely to question the power of the monarch and defend Parliament.
- Came from industrial or commercial backgrounds.
- In favor of reform.
72
What were the defenses of the system?
- Wide variety of people could vote.
| - Different interests at heart.
73
What was the system like?
- 11% of men could vote.
- Variety of voting qualifications.
- No secret ballots.
- South over North.
- 200 seats were aristocratic in h of c.
74
What was Dunning's motion?
In the years before 1780, calls for reform began to grow. In many ways this was connected to concerns about the conduct of the War of American independence. Many critics argued that these problems were caused by the power of the king and his ability to use patronage to achieve majority support in parliament regardless of the wishes of the people. In 1780, the House of Commons debated and passed a motion which stated that the power of the Crown has increased, is increasing and ought to be diminished. It was a significant victory for the campaigners for parliamentary reform.
75
What was the economical reform in the 1780s?
This was the name given to the policy of reducing royal patronage which followed Dunning's motion. The number of government ministers and offices was reduced thereby saving money and limiting the scope for patronage.
76
What were Pitt's proposed reforms in 1785?
Between 1782-85, Pitt made 3 attempts to introduce parliamentary reform, In 1785, he introduced a Reform bill which sought to abolish the 36 worst corrupt boroughs and redistribute their seats to London and under-represented counties.
77
What radical demands were made?
Paine was extremely critical of the inequalities of representation and these ideas were taken on by the LCS.
78
What did the middle class want?
- Wanted to be considered responsible.
- Parliamentary reform.
- A say in government.
- Fairer distribution of seats.
79
What did the Whigs want?
- Parliamentary reform.
| - Different system.
80
What did the king want?
- No reform.
81
What happened in the 1820s?
- No petitions.
- No hope of achieving reform.
- Economy improved.
82
What achievements were there between 1780-1829?
- Lord Dunning passed the Dunning motion in 1780. This reduced the influence of the King by taking away power of patronage.
- Some minor changes also occurred.
83
What evidence is there that the French revolution had long term roots?
- 1789: French revolution sparked serious interest in reform.
- Working people were becoming increasingly politicised.
- Growth of large political meetings in early 19th century focusing on single issues.
84
What evidence is there that explains why reform happened in 1832?
- In Bristol, protesters burned the palace of an anti-reform bishop and the house of an anti-reform MP.
- Days of May: when the second bill was rejected was rejected by the Lords, the Birmingham political union led 100,000/10,000 in a public, peaceful march.
- When Wellington tried to form a Tory government, the unions threatened to create a financial crisis by urging people to take their money out of the banks?
85
State of the economy.
Long term:
- Agricultural unrest: since late 18th century, growth in rural population created too many agricultural laborers - decline in wages. New agricultural machinery made things worse.
- Corn Laws 1815: widespread opposition as price of bread rose. They were seen as example of parliament protecting interests of large landowners at expense of working and middle classes - led to a number of organised protests under banner of reform.
Short term: Severe economic crises in late 1820s: 1828 - 30 harvests were poor - high food prices in towns.
Swing riots: 1830: riots in Southern England and East Anglia with arson attacks and destruction of thrashing machines showed how bad the situation was for agricultural workers.
86
Political
Long term:
- Death of Lord Liverpool in 1827 marked the end of Tory Party unity and supremacy.
- Internal divisions split the Tory party.
Short term:
- George IV died and replaced by William IV.
- 1830 general election saw Wellington return to office but his refusal to back reform saw his government defeated, forcing his resignation.
- Pro-reform Whig leader, Earl Grey took over.
87
What's the timeline of the Reform crisis/Great reform Act 1830-32?
August: Wellington returned as Prime Minister in general election following the death of George IV.
1st November: Wellington's government is defeated on a relatively trivial finance motion.
16th November: Wellington resigns and Grey forms a cabinet mainly of aristocrats.
88
Why was the Reform act passed in 1832?
- Politicians decided the actual terms of reform legislation. The government remained in control and made the detailed decisions. Not Hunt or Atwood but Grey. As politicians, they generally initiated and designed reform to benefit their own interests as far as possible.
- By 1832, over 100,000 were attending meetings of BPU. Despite different political unions having different aims, they did fuel support for parliamentary reform, allow middle classes to engage politically and demonstrate power of active legal protest: thus clearly scaring upper class with fear of revolution.
- Pro-reform politicians recognized the need to reform in order to preserve aristocratic government which is seen as being under threat from radical/popular protest. 1832 was essentially a conservative measure aimed at protecting/strengthening landed-interest - evidence includes throwing out proposal for a secret ballot.
89
What were criticisms of the existing system?
- Widespread corruption during elections. Many seats were uncontested.
- Property qualifications and a lack of salary for MPs mean only the very wealthy can be MPs.
- Restricted franchise - size of electorate was very small.
- Most working and middle class are excluded from the franchise - their interests are not represented in Parliament.
- Voting qualifications were inconsistent.
- Rotten or pocket boroughs meant MPs of that constituency had very few or no constituents to hold them accountable.
- The size of constituencies was unequal in terms of population they represented.
- The distribution of seats favored the South.
90
Was the government pushed into reform by popular pressure?
Jonathan Parry:
- There is a definite connection between popular pressure and economic problems.
- The overthrow of Wellington's government was more down to accident than popular pressure.
- After March 1831, poplar protest was in support of the government and against the faction opposing reform.
- The extent of agitation was exaggerated both by the government and by the radicals.
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Eric Evans:
- There was no masterplan, only general concerns about reserving political influence for property and preventing an alliance of =, middle-class reformers with the masses. For the most part, ministers reacted to extra-parliamentary developments. The crisis didn't allow ministers the time to get into the minutiae of precisely who should and should not be enfranchised.
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N McCord:
- The main features of the reform bill were settled well before popular pressure reached its height.
Clark:
- The timing and nature of reform owed most not to unrest and radicalism, but to party confusion, a conflict of opinion in cabinet and parliament, and instability in high politics caused by Catholic emancipation which betrayed the Anglican constitution which had prevented earlier reform. Therefore, the constitution was already broken before the 1832 act.
Hole:
- Secular arguments had been replacing religious ones in political controversy since the 1790s. Therefore, Clark's confessional state no longer existed in the 1820s . Theological influences played no important role in the struggles over Catholic emancipation and parliamentary reform. Discussion was carried on primarily in political and social terms.
Michael Turner:
- Any explanation of the reform struggle would be incomplete without some reference to popular pressure and as excitement reached new peaks, there were times when extra-parliamentary agitation had decisive impact.
91
Impact - conservative or radical.
James Vernon:
- The 1832 Reform Act enabled the elite to define 'the people as propertied men. It thereby contributed to a political closure experienced between 1832 to 1867.
Bentley:
- Reform did not greatly alter the social composition of the Commons, or to make the electorate popular or transfer power to the urban middle classes.
Phillips:
- 1832 was crucial in promoting new firms of political organisation, registration drives, party cohesion, the rise of urban and industrial influence. And a higher number of electoral contests with persistent partisan voting.
Asa Briggs:
- The government made it possible for an unwilling parliament to reform itself. The reform bill was a success because it removed the danger of revolution, attached the middle classes to the constitution and gave aristocratic government a new lease of life.
Llewellyn Woodward:
- After the excitement had died down, neither party found the result as dramatic as it expected.
Taylor:
- Demographic change led to a relative fall in the proportion of voters among the adult male population after 1832 and in some boroughs turnout declined. Many potential £10 householders never registered, and a large number of electors voted only once. The number of elections between 1830 - 41 affected both registration and the inclination to vote.
92
Jonathan Parry, Pembroke College, Cambridge.
- The impact is mixed/balanced - not too small, nor too democratic.
- Definitely some radical impact:
- Abolition of smallest boroughs, complete overhaul of the Scottish system.
- In effect, 1832 removes the self-interest of MPs. They have to listen to their constituents.
- More seats are contested.
- Changing the franchise and especially the introduction of a uniform franchise in the boroughs.
Clear elements of conservatism:
- The increase in the number of county seats - arguably this makes little difference and is essentially an anti-democratic move to defend property.
- Little impact on social make-up of the Commons. 70% MPs are descendants or peers or members of the Gentry.
- New borough seats are granted on the basis that they represent 'interests' - it is about balance not upheaval.
93
Who were the Chartists?
- The Chartists were a group of radical reformers who sought to achieve further constitutional change. They formed in London in 1838.
94
What were their aims?
- Chartists gained their name from the people's charter, a petition for constitutional reform.
- This was a six-point plaan by which they demanded:
- Universal suffrage for all men over 21 with sound minds who were not criminals.
- Secret ballots in elections.
- Abolition of property qualifications for MPs.
- Introduction of salaries for MPs.
- Redrawn constituencies.
- Annual parliamentary elections.
95
Why did the Chartist movement appear 1838-39?
Working class disillusionment: Although the Great Reform Act had extended the franchise and made inroads into improved representation, this had been for the middle classes rather than the working classes.
Failure of the political parties to address future reform: Both the Whigs and the Tories were clear that they saw the Great Reform Act, which had extended the vote to middle-class men, as a uniqiue event and also the full extent of change neccessary. Neither party expressed an interest in further reform.
Impact of the 1834 Poor law Amendment Act: The existing poor laws of 1597 and 1601 had been woefully inadequate in caring for the poor and had been open to corruption. A royal comission was formed and the Poor Law Amendment Act passed in 1834. Local taxes or rates were used to pay an overseer to provide for the unemployed by means of workhouses. In the Industrial north, the new law was unpopular and seen as advantage of the poor for the benefit of the rich.
Poor working and living conditions: In 1833, the government passed a factory act, but favoured factory owners by refusing to include a legal limit of a 10-hour working day. This allowed owners to continue to make industrial workers complete working weeks that were not regulated.
96
What were the actions of the Charist movement?
The National convention:
- The National convention was an organised meeting of the Chartists to discuss their plans to propose their petition to Parliament. 53 members met from London, 20 from the North and eight from Birmingham.
- Initially they met in London, but soon disagreements set in over whether or not to use force, what to do if the petition failed and whether it was to be a local or national movement. In general, the southern representatives were more moderate whereas the northern representatives favoured violence.
The failure of the first petition, 1839:
- The petition was presented to Parliament in June of 1839. It had 1.2 million signatures. Parliament rejected it. The Chartist national convention was thrown into confusion. Some wanted a national rebellion, others refused to undertake physical action. The 'sacred' month' was voted down by the convention by 13 votes to 6. There were some local riots and fighting with police in Birmingham, which were quickly put down and a number of chartists were arrested.
The Newport rising:
- The only real force used by the Chartists at this point was in Newport, South Wales. John Frost, a former mayor of Newport, led 5,000 miners sone of whom were armed in a protest march. They claimed that it was to free Chartist members from prison. They were stopped by soldiers. 24 died and 125 were arrested of whom 25 were charged with high treason, including Frost and the other leaders. Between June 1839 and June 1840, over 500 chartists were arrested including most of the leaders. This was effective as it left the already disorganised movement leaderless.
Second national convention and second petition, 1842.:
- A second national convention was arranged in 1842, following economic depression and the breakdown of parts of the Poor law system with the Outdoor Labour Test order which reintroduced outdoor relief. A new collection was, with 3.3 million signatures. It was presented to Parliament and again rejected by 287 votes to 49. This led to a number of strikes around the country.
The Third petition, 1848:
- In 1848, revolutionary fervour spread across Europe starting with Sicily and France.
97
Chartism - an overview of key events: The national convention, 1839.
- A group of chartists met to discuss their plans to propose their petition to parliament. Disagreements soon set in over whether to use force, what to do if the petition failed and whether it should be a local or national movement.
- Those delegates that remained recommended vague 'ulterior measures' if the petition failed - one idea was that they would provoke the authorities into making mass arrests. A minority of delegates recommend that Chartists should arm themselves for the anticipated future struggle. Certainly many chartists reasoned that if the establishment had succumbed to threat and pressure in 1832, it would do the same in 1839. The circumstances however were very different - neither ministers nor the propertied and newly - enfranchised classes were prepared to submit to these tactics.
98
Assessment.
- When the Commons rejected a petition by 235 votes to 46, the convention delegates clearly had no agreed strategy on how to proceed. Hastily they devised the ambitious concept of a general strike which they described as a 'sacred month'.
- However, when delegates returned to their districts, they soon discovered that no plans were being put in action for a general strike and there was insufficient support for this tactic among rank and file members. O Connor thus abandoned this idea and instead replaced it with a holiday consisting of a three day strike - he realised that the sacred month would be ineffective at a time of trade depression.
- The authorities were careful not to provide a justification for a violent reaction - they did however use this tactic following the Newport rising of 1839 when the movement had been weakned.
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The First petition, 1839.
- In 1837, Thomas Atwood revived the Birmingham Political union; despite being elected as MP for Birmingham in 1832, he was disillusioned with the House of Commons' commitment to reform. The BPU decided to campaign for universal suffrage, and in August 1938 they endorsed the six points of the People's charter and launched the petitioning strategy which was to form a major part of Chartist campaigning
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Assessment.
- The size of the petition and the level of national coordinates were unprecedented - the petition was three miles long.
- Yet in July 1839, parliament rejected the petition by 235 votes to 46: the majority of MPs simply chose to ignore the demands of the Chartists.
- Local riots and fighting with police in Birmingham followed but were quickly put down. A number of chartists were arrested.
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Newport rising, 1839.
- In November 1839, 10,000 marched from towns and villages in South Wales to Newport: most were miners and ironworkers, yet many were armed and marching in military formation. They surrounded the Westgate hotel where some local chartists leaders were being held, where shots were exchanged with a small force of troops. Twenty protestors were killed. The authorities certainly saw this as an armed uprising intended to provoke similiar risings everywhere.
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Assessment.
- Newport gave the authorities the excuse it needed - the South Wales Chartist leader John Frost and his chief lieutenants were convicted of treason and sentenced to death.
- Lovett was arrested after the Birmingham Riots; other prominent Chartists including O'Connor, were rounded up and imprisoned.
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Phase 2: 1840 to 1842. Reaction to failure.
The second petition, 1842:
- The national charter association was set up to provide the central organisation Chartism lacked. It displayed many of the improvement needed to hopefully achieve its objectives - it had a mass membership paying subscriptions which funded propaganda activities and the payment of officials.
Assessment:
- This was all far more organised than the lead up to the first petition had been, and a total of 3.3 million signatures were collected. Once again it was overwhelmingly rejected by the House of Commons by 287 votes to 49. Once more the ineffectiveness of peaceful petitioning had been demonstrating and once again the National convention had no agreed alternative strategy. Meanwhile discontent continued to grow.
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The Plug riots, 1842.
- In July 1842, the economic depression was at its worst, and the mood of political bitterness was intensified by the death in prison of Samuel Holberry, the leader of Sheffield's 1840 riot. Over the following months, the Chartist leaders saw the mainstream of working class activism drift out of their control. The strikes affected 23 counties throughout GB, but were most severe in the Midlands and the North. With many workers being laid off, and even more suffering wage cuts, discontent grew rapidly. The strikers pulled the plugs from the boilers to prevent the steam enginesf from working and thus forcing the factories to close down.
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Assessment.
- Thus the NCA found itself with a strike it had not organised or planned. Some leaders believed now was the time to force the authorities to give way or to fight.
- Eventually, a half-hearted endorsement was given - however, o connor believed many of the mills had closed too easily and thaat the mill owning members of the Anti Corn law league were conspiring to put pressure on the government to repeal the Corn laws. The Chartist leadership was still punished for a strike it had not begun although they were acquitted on a technality in 1843.
- Despite there being many violent clashes throughout the country, the Chartists were no match for the 6000 troops under the command of General Napier. These troops were moved quickly around the country. Furthermore, mass arrests were used by a a conservative government that was elected in 1841 and far more firm in its response to Chartist disturbances than the Whigs has been. Perhaps the most importantly the harvest of 1842-43 was good and the economic depression lifted.
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Phase 3: 1843-48.
Support for chartism was increasing in the late 1940s, partly because of the return of economic depression. Strikes and riots broke out in Birmingham and Glasgow. Inspired by Feargus O'Connor's election to Parliament in 1847 and by revolutionary fervour spreading across Europe in France and Sicily, a third Chartist petition and convention was planned for April 1848.
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Kennington Common Rally, 1848.
A peaceful march was organised on Kennington Common. The government feared violence and drafted in 85,000 special constables to support the 4,000 police and 7,000 troops. In the end, far fewer turned up than expected. The Chartists claimed 150,000 attended but in reality it was between 15-20,000.
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Third petition, 1848.
Further embarrassment for the Chartists came when Feargus O'Connor claimed the new petition had 6 million signatures. In reality, over half the signatures were forged with invented names like 'no cheese' and 'pugnose' as well as the queen and Wellington. Chartism became a laughing stock. The House of Commons refused to consider the petition.
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Why were the working classes so quiet?
Prosperity:
- The period from 1850 to 1875 is regarded as the high point of Victorian prosperity, symbolised by the Great Exxhibition of 1851 where GB proudly showed off its status as the workshop of the world.
- Generally, economic conditions were good - industrial output and wages rose, and unemployment was generally low. Demands for reform were often associated with hardship and hunger. In the simplest terms, people were busy working, enjoying a little prosperity and getting on with their lives. They were not worried about political demands.
Chartism's defeat had been total:
- The failure of the third petition in 1848 was absolute. Radical political action hardly seemed to offer any prospect of change. The British state had proved itself to be robust. Working class movements appeared too divided on tactics, leaders and too wedded to constitutionalism to provide a successful challenge to the elite.
- Of course, the Chartists did not just fade away - they just focused on other things. These activities would eventually enhance the respectable working classes' chances of getting the vote. In other words, the elite members of the working class follow the knowledge Chartist model and prove themselves to be respectable and trusted solid citizens.
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The working class work for respectability:
- The working class seem, in effect, to subconsciously take on board the message of their failure to gain the vote in 1832 or through Chartism i.e. that they were not ready for it. Although controversial, it can be argued that they work on a programme of self-improvement to show that they are worthy of the vote: this can explain why the working classes seem to move away from direct participation in the political dramas of the 1850s and 1860s.
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Assured government:
- 1832 showed that when the elite are divided, there is a prospect of significant change. After the Chartism, there is a long period of remarkable unity within the elite.
Viscount Palmerston:
- Although he had supported 1832, Palmerston was a clear opponent to electoral reform - as long as Palmerston was alive then it was widely agreed that there would be no more political reform, and within the political class, reform was therefore not a big issue - the ambitious political players accept they must wait for the dreadful old man to die. They didn't expect him to live for so long.
- Overall, therefore prosperity, the failure of previous reform campaigners, assured government, charming leadership and foreign policy kept the British people from thinking too much about reform for well over a decade after Chartism.
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After Palmerston - the key players.
Lord John Russell:
- Liberal leader after the death of Palmerston. Russell is old and ill and although he has served in Palmerston's cabinets, he had not enjoyed seeing Palmerston in the job he thought should be his. With Palmerston's death, he was looking for his one last hurrah.
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William Ewart Gladstone:
- Liberal Chancellor of the exchequer. He is impressed by the working classes - partly because they come to see him and respond so positively. He is especially impressed by the working class cotton workers' support of the North in the US civil war.
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Lord Derby:
- The Conservative leader. His significant achidvement was keeping the party together. He'd moved them away from protectionism and he'd dallied with electoral reform. He was fed up wuth a being a stop-gap and he would like to achieve something lasting.
Benjamin Disraeli:
- The Conservative leader in the House of Commons. He'd desperately wanted a job in Peel's administration but was not offered one.
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Why were the Contagious diseases acts introduced?
The context:
- Around 1860, there was a significant concern around venereal disease. This was especially the case in relation to army bases. The spread of venereal disease among soldiers was a real worry.
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What committee was established?
The Parliamentary Committee was introduced in 1862. The committee had two main perspectives.
The liberal solution was:
- Improved hospital care.
- Penalties for men who hid evidence of being diseased.
- Better barrack sanitation.
- More leisure activities.
The conservative solution was:
- Greater regulation of prostitutes.
- Compulsory medical examination of prostitutes by British army doctors.
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Were the debates kept quiet?
Yes.
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What was the Contagious Diseases Act of 1864?
In 1864, Parliament passed the Contagious Diseases Act. This law allowed police officers to arrest any woman suspected of being prostitute in a few selected naval ports and army towns. The women would be subjected to compulsory medical checks to see if they had a disease if the women were infected, they would be confined in a lock hospital for up to three months to be treated and to prevent them spreading the disease.
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What were the Contagious Diseases Acts of 1866 and 1869?
The Contagious Disease Act was extended in 1866: this law was the same as in 1864, except that it made a periodical medical examination of all prostitutes in the areas compulsory. In 1866, it was renewed with a few technical alterations. In 1869, the law was extended to cover 18 districts.
The Contagious Diseases Acts were enforced by plain-clothed Metropolitan policemen assigned to the districts, suppirted by the local justices of the peace. Medical examinations were usually carried out by army or navy surgeons.
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How did the Acts affect prostitutes?
The laws primarily affected working class women. The aim was to identify prostitutes. However, the problem was that the authorities misunderstood the socio-economic issues of urban working class women. Although some women were prostitutes by profession, for the majority it was simply an occassional or seasonal means of making money when there was insufficient work available or particular financial hardship. Therefore, a large number of working-class women could at one time or other be forced into prostitution. This made identifying prostitutes difficult. This was especially the case in the military garrison towns. In civilian towns, the percentage of females over age 20 in the population was usually in the low 50s, but in military garrison towns, women over 20 usually made up over 60% of the population, due to the number of men in barracks.
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How did the acts affect ordinary women?
Because prostitution was so widespread, the police assigned to stop prostitutes were forced to assume that women living in poorer areas were prostitutes. Therefore, women in these areas of town would be stopped on suspicion of prostitution simply on the basis of where they lived. Opponents of the acts insisted that many innocent women had been stopped.
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What happened to women under the Contagious Diseases Acts?
- Women who were identified as prostitutes were listed on a register and reqiuired to take a fortnightly medical examination for venereal disease. If they refused, they would be taken before a magistrate and charged. Unlike a usual cirminal case, where the requirement is on the prosecutor to prove guilt, in these cases the burden was on the woman to prove her innocence. Refusing to be examined could result in a fine or prison sentence.
If the accused accepted and were examined by a surgeon, those that were found to be clean would be given a card with their personal registration number on and the surgeon's signature to verify to customers that they were free of disease.
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Why did people oppose the Contagious Diseases Acts?
- The law only focused on the women.
- It did not work.
- There were concerns that the army and navy were being used to impose order on civilians.
- The laws made the problem worse.
- The rules to identify and test women were vague.
- It broke Habeas corpus.
- The law was anti-democratic.
- Some saw the acts as legalising prostitution.
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Did everyone oppose it?
There was a large amount of support for the Contagious Diseases acts. The support for the laws was small but strong and influential. Between 1870 and 1881, the abolition movement presented 10,315 petitions against the Contagious Diseases Acts with 2,015,404 signatures whereas the groups wanting to keep the laws only presented 45 petitions with 3,579 signatures. Twenty-eight of these came from areas covered by the laws showing that even in affected areas there was some support. These supporters were effective at dragging out the debate out for 16 years.
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Which groups and individuals led the opposition?
The National Association for repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts:
- Formed in 1869.
- It included businessmen, lawyers, clergymen and several MPs.
Ladies' national association for repeal of the acts:
- Formed a few weeks after the National Association.
- Led by Josephine Butler.
- A copy of the statement was presented to Parliament with 2,000 signatures from supporters.
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Who was Josephine Butler?
Background:
- The wife of a headmaster in Liverpool.
- She had been involved in the Liverpool area supporting poor women and girls in a local poorhouse and as chairwoman for a committee on extending adult education.
Role:
- She was a forceful, persuasive speaker who provided respectable leadership.
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Support in Parliament.
Although most support for the movement was extra-parliamentary, there were some MPs who gave support. William Fowler and James Stansfield, both Liberal MPs spoke in favour of ending the laws, primarily because they essentially legalised prostitution. Fowler complained in Parliament that the laws were unconstitutional for arresting women with only a suspicion and no requirement for evidence. John Stuart Mill, famous for supporting female suffrage, also spoke out against the laws. However, the number of MPs was small.
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Why were the Contagious Diseases Acts repealed?
The Parliamentary comissions:
- Two Parliamentary comissions were established to inquire into how the laws were organised and admininstered.
The repeal of the acts:
- Despite the comissions supporting the acts, MP James Stansfied presented a speech in 1883 where he claimed that the laws were immoral and undemocratic. In 1886, the Liberal government of William Gladstone indicated an intention to abolish the acts completely.
Why did Parliament repeal the laws?
- The main reason was the scale of opposition to the laws. By the 1880s, opposition had grown enormously. Over 10,000 petitions had been presented to Parliament. The opposition included respectable, eloquent and educated advocates.
There were other reasons for the abolition of the acts:
- The arguments presented by the opposition were legal and practical.
- For most of the 1870s, a Conservative government was part of a wider context of small changes to women's rights.
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What were the new criticisms of the Contagious Diseases Acts?
- Medical evidence that in some areas the incidence of venereal disease was increasing again.
- A study which connected increased incidence to men feeling it was safer to visit prostitutes after compulsory checks were introduced.
- There were more legal and principled objections as time progressed.
- Some religious groups expressed concerns about the inequality between men and women, fearing it legitimised male behaviour.
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What petitions were submitted to Parliament during the 1870s?
- The initial action of the National Association in 1869 was to present a petition to the Home Secretary with the signatures of 50 medical professionals opposed to the Acts. Supporters of the acts responded with a petitition signed by over 1000 doctors.
- But the balance shifted over the 1870s with over 10,000 petititions containing over 2 million signatures submitted against the Acts and only 45 with fewer than 4000 signatures submitted in favour.
- Nevertheless, supporters of the Acts had far greater influence and better connections than opponents. Key sources of influence such as the Lancet remained in favour and this swayed newspapers, such as the Times who did not take a balanced view for many years. This helps explain why the debate continued for more than 15 years.
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What happened in 1869?
In 1869, opponents of the Act set up the National Association for repeal of Contagious Diseases.
- The organisation grew out of various organisations that already existed and brought together various different campaigners with a range of abilities.
- Members included businessmen, lawyers, clergy, academics and several MPs. These included Liberals William Fowler and James Stansfield.
- It was a middle class male movement - initially women were not allowed to join.
- Initially, the focus was against the extension of the Acts in the North of England but later they extended to campaign for the laws to be repealed.
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When was the Ladies' National Association for the Repeal of the CDA set up?
- Formed a few weeks after the National Association at the instigation of Elizabeth Wolstenholme.
- The participation of women in a debate on venereal disease and prostitution shocked and impressed the press who praised their courage and tenacity.
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Why was Josephine Butler a good choice for leader?
- Married to an Anglican Church minister.
- Charismatic, strong-willed, fashionable and generally regarded to be beautiful.
- She was a devout Christian.
- Leadership was driven out of maternal love.
- She took pity on the prostitutes.
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What was the role of James Stansfield?
From 1874, he took a dominant role in leading the national movement for the repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts. Stansfield reshaped the movement into a more effective political pressure group. He continued to cultivate popular support, but adopted new strategies. He looked to develop scientific arguments against the Acts based on facts. This transformed the campaign from a moral venue to a pragmatic one.
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What were the negatives of this though?
Stansfield's role created some tension with many middle-class women within the LNA. They felt that men were too influential within the movement. Women such as Butler preferred to make allegiances with working class women. Butler relied on Stansfield's organisational skills but felt his prominence in the movement to be a threat. Both Wilson and Stansfield were central to the LNA's success, however Wilson was instrumental in getting the Liberal party to support the repeal while Stansfield would eventually push through the final repeal in 1886. Unlike Butler, Wilson and Stansfield were eligible to become Members of Parliament.
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What tactics did the LNA employ?
Interfering in elections:
- One notable success for the LNA was the 1870 candidacy of Henry Storks for Newark. Storks had been the governor of Malta and had enforced the Contagious Diseases Acts rigorously across the Mediterreanen island. Repeal campaigners ruthlessly targeted Storks for his behaviour on Malta, placing so much pressure that he withdrew his candidacy on the day of the election. A new Liberal candidate was elected who opposed the Acts. This was a huge coup for the LNA and showed the extent of its support. However, the triumph was short-lived. Storks stood again 1870 for Colchester.
In 1872, H.C.E Childers sought re-election in Pontrefract. Childers was First Lord of the Admiralty, and because the Admiralty had zealously supported the Contagious Diseases Acts, protestors targeted Childrers' election campaign. Childers was a popular figure in Pontrefract so when the LNA organised demonstrations against his re-election, these were met with local hostility and violence. Childers was returned to Parliament, but with a greatly reduced majority. Anti-Contagious Diseases Acts protestors recieved the credit for his drop in support.
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How was this effective?
This practiced of manipulating public sympathy and influencing the electling of MPS was a powerful way for the LNA to campaign. However, its influence was fragile. The problem was that protestors were almost entirely dependent on Liberal Candidates and were unable to exert influence over Conservative MPs. This position was made clear when Benjamin Disraeli's Conservative Party won the 1874 general election. The LNA lost the Liberal MPs who were sympathetic to its cause. While popular protest through the influencing of Liberal MPs could be sensational, it risked weakening the Liberal Party and allowing the Conservatives to increase their power.
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What other tactics did they use?
Drawing attention to women mistaken for prostitutes:
- Another tactic to gain support against the Contagious Diseases Acts was to draw attention to women who had been incorrectly identified as prostitutes. The most dramatic of these was the case of Mrs Percy who was mistaken for a prostitute in Aldershot in 1875. Mrs Percy drowned herself while the police were investigating their behaviour. Butler appreciated the publicity value of such a story.
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How did they co-operate with prostitutes?
One noticeable failure of the LNA was its inability to mobilise working-class women against the Acts. By 1882, it was apparent that the campaign had failed to sway public opinion in the subjected ports and towns. While this proved not to be a barrier to repeal, as the local authorities in these areas eventually objected to the Acts, there were anomalies. In Plymouth and Southampton in the early 1870s, campaigners succeeded in persuading prostitutes to resist the legal requirements of the Acts. In Plymouth throughout 1870, public meetings and pamphleteering agitated prostitutes and brothel-keepers to such an extent that they refused to co-operate with the police and doctors.
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Who played the most important role?
LNA: - Leaders were from affluent, middle-class backgrounds.
- Inspired by religious fervour.
- Nationwide network.
- Held 900 public meetibgs and organised 18,000 petitions.
Josephine Butler:
- Leader of the LNA.
- Had previously campaigned for women's rights.
- Gifted speaker.
- Had no head for organisation but was supported by comitted, strong-minded and hard-working colleagues.
National associsation for the repeal of the CDA:
- Established in 1869.
- Branch associations' formed.
Grassroots movement:
- Regional electoral leagues were established.
- Saw themselves as outsiders.
- Henry Wilson was a brilliant organiser.
James Stansfeld:
- Allowed to give his full support to repeal.
- Set about making it a more effective pressure group.
Parliament:
- Liberal gov't set up an inquiry.
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Why were the CDA repealed?
The campaign against the Contagious Diseases Acts had immediate impact.
The LNA's campaign was ultimately successful. In 1883, the CDA were suspemfded and in 1886, they were repealed. While the House of Commons discussed the suspending of the Acts, Butler and her followers held continous prayers next to Parliament throughout the night. The efforts of the protestors had suceeded in exerting influence on parliament and the forms of protest utilised were very difficult for politicians to deal with. Influencing election results and raising fears over wrongful identification were useful tactics but made the protest so forceful was its success in convincing large elements of society that the Contagious Diseases Acts were immoral.
Despite this, the direct relationship between the LNA and repeal of the Acts is hard to specify. While the campaign encouraged a political climate in which the Contagious Diseases Acts appeared as shocking evidence of society's sexual double standard.
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What was the background of the WSPU?
From the 1870s, there had been a growing movement for women's suffrage. It had originated from the political organisations that had developed to support the political parties. From 1897, the National Union of Women's suffrage societies under Millicent Fawcett had specifically focused on the vote for women by unifying the many different groups campaigning for female suffrage.
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When was the WSPU formed?
The Women's social and Political Union was formed in 1903 in Manchester, a hotbed of radical reformist thinking by Emeline Pankhurst and her daughter Christabel. Emeline Pankhurst had been involved in campaigning with the Independent Labour Party but became frustated at the lack of progress. Whereas, the NUWSS was an alliance of groups, the WSPU was very focused around the leadership of Pankhurst and her two daughters. The leadership style was very autocratic and the Pankhursts demanded complete obedience. They had no constitution, no annual meetings and no accounts unlike most political groups.
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What were the aims of the WSPU?
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To achieve female suffrage:
As with the other female groups, the WSPU sought female suffrage. However, they did not seek votes for all women but votes on equal status to men. In effect, since only 30% of males could vote, this meant that their aim was for only women of middle-class wealth to vote. One critic said that they did not want votes for women but votes for ladies.
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To pressure the ILP:
- The Pankhursts were concerned that the Independent Labour Party was not working with enough focus on female suffrage. They felt that the male-dominated ILP was not sufficiently prioritising the campaign. Further, their focus on suffrage divided support within the Labour Party.
To free women from slavery:
- Christabel saw the campaign for the vote as part of a wider issue of freeing women from an enslaved social role where they had insufficient rights. Therefore, the campaigning of the WSPU was generally by women.
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Why did the WSPU become incrasingly militant after 1908?
Early tactics:
- The initial tactics were quite constitutional and conservative.
- The WSPU published a journal.
- They took part in marches.
Up to 1908, there is very little to separate the NUWSS from the WSPU with the exception that the WSPU also heckled meetings at public meetings.
Increased militancy
- From 1909, tactics took a more militant direction. Christabel Pankhurst led a wave of attacks on property in 1909. This included throwing stones through the windows of London social clubs and burning post boxes.
- Public demonstrations were no longer used as a peaceful tactic but a way of attempting to storm political locations like the House of Parliament and Downing Street.
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What happened between 1911-12?
By 1911, the government suggested a law which might give a small number of wealthy women the vote, called a Concilation Bill. The WSPU paused their tactics to allow parliamentary allies chance to push this through. However, although it passed the second reading stage, it failed to become due to a lack of parliamentary time. The Liberal government announced that a new bill would be proposed, this time aimed at male suffrage but with the possibility of considering female franchise as an amendment. The WSPU saw this as a betrayal and returned to a far more radical period of campaigning.
143
What happened between 1912-14?
From 1912, the militant campaigns became more extreme than previously.
144
What are four examples of this?
- Attacks on property of value in London and elsewhere.
- A famous painting in the National Gallery, the Rokeby Venus was slashed with a knife by a suffragette whom the papers named 'Slasher Mary'.
- In Bristol, suffragettes burned a timber yard, a university building and two mansions.
- Emily Davison threw herself in front of a horse at the 1913 Derby.
- Hunger strikes in jail, which forced the government to pass the so-called cat and mouse act' in 1913 to avoid creating a martyr.
The increased militancy reduced public support as the violence no longer seemed reasonable or targeted at specific government individuals. It also created tension in the WSPU which Emeline Pankhurst commonly resolved by expelling those who disagreed with the militants, including her own daughter.
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What happened in 1914?
In 1914, when the First world War broke out, Pankhurst called an end to the militant campaigns in a demonstration of patriotism.
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What was the role of Pankhurst within the WSPU?
Emeline Pankhurst:
- She was a dictatorial leader and personally made the majority of decisions.. The leadership of the NUWSS was more democratic. Pankhurst's stubborn side and leadership style caused some members to leave the union.
- Emeline also directed WSPU tactics. In 1905, she relocated the WSPU from Manchester to London to be more central. During the periods of militancy, she led marches and gave public speeches. She was imprisoned several times, and she took the lead in hunger strikes.
- In 1913, when some of the WSPU left the movement over unhappiness with the level of militarism, her firm leadership held it together.
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What was the role of Christabel Pankhurst?
- Christabel was particularly radical from the beginning. In 1905, she was arrested.
- She was crucial in maintainung militancy. She also kept the party focused on female suffrage.
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What was the role of Sylvia Pankhurst?
- Sylvia, Christabel's sister, also supported the WSPU.
- She supported the militant campaigns and went to prison in 1906 and 1913.
- However, she never fully supported the militancy, especially the arson campaign of 1913.
- Sylvia kept a working relationship with the Labour Party.
- Sylvia was arrested eight times in 1913.14: her arrests often led to fighting between her supporters and the police. This brought extra attention to the WSPU campaign, as well as damaging some middle-class support for the movement.
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What was the role of Emily Davison?
- She joined the WSPU in 1906.
- She regularly took part in militant activities and served several prison sentences.
- In 1909, she threw rocks at the carriage of David Lloyd George. This led to a month in Strangeways Prison, Manchester. She went on a hunger strike and locked herself into her cell. The prison warden used a hose to flood the room, nearly drowning her. This was publicised nationally.
- More famously, she died by throwing herself in front of the King's horse at the 1913 Derby.
- Her death was publicised in the newspapers.
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How did the government view the issue of female suffrage?
Conservative party:
- Most Conservative MPs were hostile to female suffrage. However, many of the leadership saw the potential for property-owning women to have the vote as a potential source of increasing right-wing support since the 1884 Representation of the People Act had increased the number of centre-left voters. All three leaders between 1881 and 1914 indicated their willingness to consider limited female suffrage.
Liberal party:
- The Liberal party was the opposite. The majority of members either openly supported or were willing to consider female suffrage. For example, in 1907 and in 1909, they proposed the unsuccessful Women's suffrage bill. However, the proposed party leadership were concerned. In the late 19th century, they were divided over different issues.
The Labour party:
- The Labour Party did support female suffrage but they would not distinguish it from universal suffrage for all women classes of men and women. This led to the stormy relationship with the WSPU. The overall lack of consensus meant that there was no real government support for female suffrage.
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How did the government respond to increased militancy?
Initial relaxed stance: The government took a relaxed stance to the movement. Freedom of political expression had become an expectation by the late nineteenth century, and many of the women leading the movements such as Emeline Pankhurst had connections within the political parties.
As militancy increased, so did the arrests: Police were sent to break up protests and to arrest women carrying out vandalism. When some WSPU members fought back, this caused a level of confusion. The government had a difficult challenge. On the one hand, the violent actions had to be opposed, yet on the other hand, images in the newspapers of women being physically restrained and complaints of police brutality did not look good for the authorities.
Fines and short prison sentences: In some areas, courts managed to limit the effect of the protestd by giving fines rather than prison sentences, in some instances even paying fines for them, which refuced the opportunities for publicity. However, this was not always possible and so prison sentences were kept short where possible.
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What about hunger strikes?
Hunger strikes were one of the biggest problems for the government especially from 1912. Female prisoners refused to eat, putting their lives in danger. This led prison doctors to force-feed restrained prisoners through tubes pushed down their throats. This played into the hands of the WSPU, by painting a picture of further government mistresatment of suffrage campaigners. s a result, the Prisoners Act, 1913 was passed. This allowed prisons to release women whose strikes had endangered their health, instead of force-feeding them or letting them die, since they would presumably be too weak to be a public danger. Then, once they had recovered, they could be re-arrested without trial if they comitted further offences. Although this created controversy as it seemed to toy with the women, it reduced public attention on the treatment of prisoners by removing the need to force-feed, and prevented any deaths in prison which would give the campaign a martyr.
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What happened to the women's suffrage bill of 1909?
What happened?
- The Liberals proposed a bill in 1907 for women's suffrage which was to give some women and all men the vote.
- They re-proposed the bill in 1908 and again in 1909. Both times, the bill passed the second reading but then failed to get any further.
Why did it fail?
- Bills must be passed and become acts within the allowed time for debate. This bill was not given enough debate time.
- Partly because other considerations took precedent in 1909, there was substantial debate over the People's budget, a liberal effort to fund social welfare programmes with increased taxes on high incomes.
- The announcement on the first of two general elections in 1910 meant the parties focused on their election campaigns.
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What happened to the conciliation committee of 1910?
What happened?
- The NUWSS and WSPU joined forces to form a cross-party committee, aiming to achieve limited suffrage for just 1 million women.
- Emmeline Pankhurst called a halt on militant activities.
- A bill was drafted, 300 MPs promised support and a petition of 250,000 names was presented in support.
Why did it fail?
- Asquith did not support the bill. The suffragettes had expected Liberal support with the election at hand and growing popular support for female suffrage, but Asquith was not willing to put his party behind the movement.
- Even though the bill passed the second reading by 100 votes, Asquith declared thaat there was not time to continue debating and it did not become an act.
