Challenges to, and the fall of the Fascist State, c1935-46 Flashcards
What was Italy’s international standing in 1935?
When Mussolini came to power, he had certain foreign policy aims, including modernising Italy’s armed forces and expanding her colonies in North Africa. Hee did not have a plan to achieve them, however. By the end of the 1920s, Mussolini was more secure in his power and became more adventurous in foreign policy.
What were his foreign policy aims?
- Achieve ‘Great Power’ status for Italy, making her an equal of Britain and France.
- Promote fascism and Italian prestige abroad, and gain colonial possessions.
- establish Italian dominance in the Mediterranean, the Adriatic Sea and the Balkans, especially in Albania.
What were the problems with achieving his aims?
In 1922, Italy had little influence on the international stage. Britain and France were still the key powers, they supported the Versailles settlement and both ruled over powerful empires. Italy could not challenge Britain and France in either military or diplomatic terms at this point. This did not stop Mussolini being determined to reverse the Treaty of Versailles, although he maintained good relations with Britain and France on the surface.
What was Mussolini’s theory of encirclement?
In Mussolini’s speeches, he both claimed friendship with Italy’s First World War allies and denounced them as parasites. He declared that he would destroy the British Empire and developed a theory that Italy was a prisoner in the Mediterranean, encircled by British and French military bases. This became the centre of Mussolini’s foreign policy.
Mussolini and the search for allies.
Strong allies were neccessary if Italy was to begin an assertive foreign policy. Mussolini signed treaties with many European countries in the early-mid 1920s. They were largely commercial treaties, though, and did not bring him the prestige he sought.
Mussolini had a reputation for switching allegiances when the circumstances suited him, so the treaties counted for little politically. Mussolini’s search for allies had the reverse effect to that which he intended: he acquired a rather negative reputation as a politician as a result of it.
What did Fascist propaganda depict Mussolini as?
Fascist propaganda depicted Mussolini as a heroic figure, outwitting foreign statesmen and defending Italian interests. In fact, the picture was much more mixed before 1934, with some successes and some failures.
What happened in Corfu in 1923?
In August 1923, an Italian general, Enrico Tellini and four of his aides were assassinated in Greece. They were part of a League of Nations mission to establish the location of the border between Greece and Albania. Mussolini made extensive demands on Greece, including an official apology and an indemnity of 50 million lire.
When the Greek Government refused these terms, Mussolini ordered the bombardment and occupation of Corfu.
The matter was referred to the League of Nations to the Conference of Ambassadors, which largely supported Italy. Greece was ordered to pay the indemnity. Britain demanded the withdrawal of Italian forces from Corfu and Mussolini was forced to comply. The Corfu incident showed Italy could not claim equal Great Power status. It revealed the constraints on Italian foreign policy, but also that international organisations could condone the threats of dictators like Mussolini.
What happened in the Balkanss, 1924-26?
When Ahmed Zog took power in Albania in 1924, Mussolini seized the opportunity to pressurise Yugoslavia into accepting Italian influence in the Balkans. He gave Zog financial support and in 1926, signed a treaty of friendship which confirmed Albania’s position as an Italian satellite state. Albania bordered Yugoslavia, and Mussolini further destablised Yugoslavia by supporting Croatian separatist groups and right-wing militias.
What were the Locarno Treaties, 1925?
A conference of representatives from Britain, France, Germany and Italy was held at Locarno in Switzerland in an attempt to ease rising tensions in Europe. It proved very successful. Germany’s western frontiers were confirmed, and the powers committed themselves to further work on settling Germany’s eastern borders. Mussolini was content to work with the European powers , and Locarno presented Italy as a major European power.
What was the Kellogg-Briand pact, 1928?
In 1928, Mussolini signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact, outlawing war as a means to resolving confli between powers. Nine powers signed the pact on 27 August 1928. A further 56 nations signed it afterwards.
Mussolini tried to use the pact as a chance to demonstrate his influence, attempting to persuade the delegates to travel to Rome to sign it. This proposal failed. The pact carried little weight with the powers, and Mussolini dismissed it in the Italian Parliament shortly after signing it.
What was Italy’s relationship with the other European powers like?
Relations between Fascist Italy and the other European powers wavered in the 1920s and early 1930s. Mussolini was torn between trying to maintain cordial relatations with all the powers while having expansionist goals.
What was Italy’s relationship with Britain like?
Mussolini was wary of straining relations with Britain and Frrance. He portrayed himself as supportive of their interests. The following actions were intended to demonstrate this approach:
- Italy remained a member of the League of Nations.
- Mussolini signed the Locarno Treaties.
- He signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact.
- He reached agreement with Britain about colonial borders in North Africa.
Though Mussolini signed these agreements, he was not fully committed to them, but was prepared to exploit the changing international situation to benefit himself and Italy. He hoped his actions would win him the favour of Britain and France, which would hopefully lead to concessions in Italy’s favour.
What was Italy’s relationship with Germany like?
In the late 1920s, Mussolini begun to fund German right-wing political groups in the hope that a pro-Fascist government would emerge. He was aware that a strong Germany would act as a counter-balance to the power of Britain and France, and hoped this would make them more supportive of Italian aims in the Balkans and North Africa.
Relations were tense between Germany and Italy when Hitler came to power in 1933. Mussolini called for a Four-Power conference in Rome between Italy, France, Britain and Germany following Hitler’s withdrawal from the Disarmament Conference and the League of Nations. Mussolini pronounced the conference a great triumph for Italy but it ended with no resolution, and Mussolini was still afraid that Fascist Italy would be subordinated to Nazi Germany.
Austria was on Italy’s Northern Border, and Mussolini was concerned that Germany might seize any opportunity to annex the German speaking state. He encouraged the Austrian Chancellor Dolfuss to clamp down on Austrian Nazis and create a regime based on Fascist principles. When Dolfuss was assassinated by Austrian Nazis in July 1934, Mussolini feared a German invasion of Austria. He sent 40,000 troops to the Austrian border to discourage Hitler from taking action.
What happened on the Stresa Front, 1935?
Hitler’s announcement in 1935 that Germany was developing her air force, introducing military conscription and rearming contravened the Treaty of Versailles. Mussolini called for a meeting with Britain and France to discuss these actions. The conference was arranged in April 1935 in Stresa, northern Italy.
What did they agree?
- All three powers criticised German rearmament, which contravened the Treaty of Versailles.
- They agreed to co-operate to prevent any country from abandoning previously agreed peace treaties.
- They reaffirmed their support for the 1925 Locarno Treaties.
- They agree to support an independent Austria.
What was the result of this?
This was the high point of Mussolini’s co-operation with Britain and France. The Stresa Front was vague however, and did not include specific commitments for action from any power. They were not prepared to invade Germany to prevent further branches of the Treaty of Versailles.
There was also division between the three powers on how to deal with Hitler. Britain undermined the pact when they signed the Anglo-German naval agreement in June 1935 without consulting France or Italy, and Mussolini used this an excuse for abandoning it.
What was the invasion of Abyssinia?
At Stresa, Mussolini gained the mistaken impression that Britain and France would condone an Italian invasion and takeover of Abyssinia. There were several reasons why Mussolini was determined to launch a campaign in Africa:
- To satisfy Italy’s Nationalist and colonial ambitions and increase the regime’s popularity at home.
- To provide Fascism with a major propaganda victory.
- To demonstrate to the world that Italy was a major power.
In December 1934, a military confrontation took place at the Wal Wal oasis in which 150 Abyssinians and 50 Italians were killed. Mussolini used the Wal Wal incident to prepare for the invasion of Abyssiniaa. He built up his forces throughout the summer of 1935 and had 220,000 troops on the Abyssinian border by October. The Abyssinian Emperor, Haile Selassie, sought support from the League of Nations, but the league refused to intervene.
When did the invasion authorise the invasion?
Mussolini authorised the invasion of Abyssinia on 3 October 1935. He hoped for a quick victory. Adowa was captured on 6 October, the site of humiliating defeat for Italy in 1896. After this, however, the advance was slow.
In 1936, Italy finally won the war with a massive military build up involving 600,000 troops and air power. The final assault on the capital, Addis Ababa, resulted in Selassie’s exile and the end of the war on 5 May 1936.
It was trumpeted as a huge Italian victory and resulted in growing popularity for Mussolini at home. However, there were many negative consequences:
- the economic cost of the war was huge.
- Garrisons were established which occupied a huge number of troops.
- Italy used mustard gas against Abyssinian civilians, which gave them a reputation for brutality.
What was the impact of the Abyssinian campaign?
Tensions grew with Brutain and France. They did not want to push Mussolini towards Nazi Germany but recognised the need to prevent further aggression by him. They supported only limited sanctions against Italy. The Hoare-Laval Pact of December 1935 stated that Italy could retain most of Abyssinia but a smaller independent nation would be established. This was rejected by Mussolini and condemned in Britain and France. From 1936 onwards, the relationship between Italy, France and Britain was arguably damaged beyond repair.
Intervention in the Spanish Civil war and its consequences.
Mussolini decided to support General Franco, a fellow Fascist, who was involved in a civil war against supporters of the Spanish Second Republic. This was partly because France supported the Republicans and Mussolini wanted to gain more influence in the Mediterranean. He also did not want to seem subservient to Hitler, who also supported Franco.
He provided air, ground and artillery support for Franco, who defeated the Republicans in March 1939. The German and Italian military support was a key reason for this. Britain and France did not provide the Republicans with the same level of support. They refused to offer any official support and declared neutrality. Italy and Germany argued they were preventing the rise of socialism in Europe.
What happened to public opinion?
Public opinion turned against Italy in western democracies. There was widespread support for the Spanish Republican cause across Europe. Mussolini’s relationship with Hitler severely damaged relations with Britain and France.
What happened to Germany’s and Italy’s position within Europe?
Franco’s victory strenghened the position of Germany and Italy and weakened France and Britain. For Italy, the intervention had negative financial consequences. Much money was spent, Italian trade was disrupted and military strength sapped. Italy was involved in the conflict for a much longer period than Mussolini had hoped for.
