The Endocrine System: Part 2 Flashcards
1
Q
The adrenal glands are located _____ and are also know as _____.
A
superior to the kidneys; suprarenal glands
2
Q
The adrenal glands are _____ in size and weigh _____.
A
3x3x1; 5g
3
Q
The adrenal glands consist of an _____ and an _____.
A
outer cortex and an inner medula
4
Q
The _____ of the adrenal glands produces _____ of _____ hormones from within _____ of the cortex.
A
cortex; 3 different types of steroid; 3 zones
5
Q
The _____ (or _____) of the adrenal glands produces _____ and _____.
A
medulla (or inner layer); epinephrine and norepinephrine
6
Q
The cortex (or _____) is split into three _____. The outermost is _____, the middle one is _____ and the innermost one is _____.
A
outer layer of the adrenal glands; zones;
zona glomerulosa; zona fasciculata; zona reticularis
7
Q
Zona glomerulosa, which is the _____ of the _____, secretes _____.
A
outer zone; adrenal gland; mineralocorticoids
8
Q
Zona fasciculata, which is the _____ of the _____, secretes _____.
A
middle zone; adrenal gland; glucocorticoids
9
Q
Zona reticularis, which is the _____ of the _____, secretes _____.
A
inner zone; adrenal gland; androgens
10
Q
____% of mineralocorticoid activity is due to _____.
A
95%; aldosterone
11
Q
Mineralocorticoids function primarily _____ by _____ and by _____.
A
salt balance by increasing reabsorption of Na+ with Cl-, bicarbonate and water following it and by promoting excretion of K+ and H+
12
Q
Aldosteronism
A
Hypersecretion of aldosterone leads to the retention of Na+ and water in the blood and causes hypertension.
13
Q
_____% of the hormonal activity of glucocorticoids is due to _____.
A
95%; cortisol
14
Q
Glucocorticoids function to _____ by _____.
A
help regulate glucose metabolism by increasing the rate of gluconeogenesis, providing resistance to stress, raising BP and having anti-inflammatory effects
15
Q
Gluconeogenesis
A
The breakdown of proteins and fats to form glucose.
16
Q
Glucocorticoids provide resistance to stress by _____.
A
making nutrients available for ATP production
17
Q
Glucocorticoids raise BP by _____;
A
vasoconstriction
18
Q
Glucocorticoids can have an anti-inflammatory effects by _____.
A
reducing the release of histamine from mast cells, decreasing capillary permeability, and depressing phagocytosis
19
Q
Androgens are _____.
A
small amounts of male hormones produced
20
Q
The effect of androgens in males is _____.
A
insignificant
21
Q
_____ may contribute to sex drive in females.
A
Androgens
22
Q
_____ are converted to _____ in postmenopausal women.
A
Androgens; estrogen
23
Q
Medulla cells (or _____) receive direct innervation from _____ and develop from _____.
A
chromaffin cells; the sympathetic nervous system; the same tissue as postganglionic neurons
24
Q
Hormones of the adrenal medulla are _____. and cause _____
A
sympathomimetic; fight-or-flight behavior
25
Sympathomimetic
The effect mimic those of the sympathetic NS
26
The pancreas is _____ located _____ that can be classified as _____.
flattened organ located posterior and slightly inferior to the stomach; both an endocrine and an exocrine gland
27
The pancreas consists of _____ (or _____) and _____ called _____.
pancreatic islets (or islets of Langerhans) and clusters of cells called acini
28
Acini
A cluster of enzyme-producing exocrine cells in the pancreas.
29
The pancreas is split into 3 parts: _____, _____, and _____.
the head, body and tail
30
Cells in _____ of the pancreas produce _____.
acini; digestive enzymes
31
_____ cells in pancreatic islets (or _____) produce _____.
Endocrine; islets of Langerhans; hormones
32
The pancreatic islets (or _____) are made of 4 types of cells: _____, _____, _____, and _____.
islets of Langerhans; alpha cells, beta cells, delta cells and F cells.
33
Alpha cells comprise _____% of the pancreatic islets and produce _____.
20%; glucagon
34
Beta cells comprise _____% of the pancreatic islets and produce _____.
70%; insulin
35
Delta cells comprise _____% of the pancreatic islets and produce _____.
5%; somatostatin
36
F cells of the pancreatic islets and produce _____.
pancreatic polypeptides
37
Regulation of Glucagon and Insulin:
1) Hypoglycemia stimulates _____ to secrete _____.
2) _____ acts on _____ (_____) to start _____ and _____.
3) The _____ released by the _____ raises the blood glucose back to a normal level.
4) If blood glucose levels continue to rise, _____ inhibits the release of _____.
5) Hyperglycemia stimulates _____ to secrete _____.
6) _____ acts on various body cells to accelerate _____ into cells, speed up _____ and _____, increase _____ and increase _____, and to slow down _____ and _____.
7) Blood glucose levels _____.
8) If blood glucose levels continue to fall, _____ inhibits the release of _____.
1) alpha cells; glucagon
2) Glucagon acts on hepatocytes (liver cells) to start glycogenolysis and glyconeogenesis.
3) glucose; hepatocytes
4) hyperglycemia; glucagon
5) beta cells; insulin
6) Insulin; accelerate facilitated diffusion of glucose into cells, speed up glycogenesis and lipogenesis, increase the uptake of amino acids and increase protein synthesis, and to slow down glycogenolysis and glyconeogenesis
7) fall
8) hypoglycemia; insulin
38
The ovaries produce _____.
estrogen, progesterone, relaxin and inhibin
39
Estrogen is released by _____ and _____.
the ovaries and assists in the development of oocytes
40
Progesterone is released by _____ and _____.
the ovaries and prepares the uterus for implantation
41
Relaxin is released by _____ and _____.
the ovaries and relaxes the pubic symphesis and cervix for delivery
42
Inhibin is released by _____ and _____.
the ovaries and the testes and inhibits FSH
43
The testes produce _____.
testosterone and inhibin
44
Testosterone is produced _____ and _____.
in the testes and regulates sperm production and male sexual characteristics
45
The _____ is the small gland attached to _____ of the brain where _____ is released.
pineal gland; the third ventricle; melatonin
46
Levels of _____, which is secreted by _____, increase at night and is responsible for _____
melatonin; the pineal gland; setting our biological clock
47
Seasonal Affect Disorder (SAD)
Thought to be caused by too much melatonin
48
_____ secretion causes sleepiness and occurs _____ due to _____.
Melatonin; during darkness due to a lack of stimulation from the sympathetic ganglion
49
The thymus gland plays an important role in _____.
the maturation of T lymphocyte cells
50
T cell
A type of WBC that fights infection
51
Hormones produced by _____ promote the _____ and _____ of T cells
the thymus gland; proliferation and maturation
52
The thymus gland produces...
thymosin
thymic humoral factor
thymic factor
thymopoietin
53
The _____ produces hormones to help maintain pregnancy and prepare for birth.
placenta
54
The hormones that the placenta produces are...
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG), estrogen, progesterone, relaxin and Human Chorionic Somatomammotropin
55
Several body tissues other than those classified as _____ contain _____ and thus _____.
endocrine glands contain endocrine tissue and thus secrete hormones
56
Organs and tissues that are not classified as _____ but still _____ include: _____
endocrine glands but still secrete hormones include
| the stomach, small intestines, kidneys, liver, skin, heart and adipose tissue
57
Eicosanoids
Local hormones that are released by all body cells.
58
Eicosanoids alter _____.
the production of second messengers within the cell
59
Leukotrienes influence _____.
WBCs and inflammation
60
Prostaglandins alter _____ and are often released _____.
smooth muscle contraction, glandular secretions, blood flow, platelet function, nerve transmission and metabolism and are often released by injured cells.
61
NSAIDs such as _____ and _____ inhibit _____ and are used to treat _____
aspirin and ibuprofen inhibit a key enzyme in prostaglandin synthesis and are used to treat a wide variety of inflammatory disorders
62
Growth Factor
A substance with mitogenic qualities.
63
Mitogenic
Causes cell division; triggers mitosis
64
Many growth factor act _____ as _____ or _____.
locally as autocrines or paracrines
65
Some growth factors include...
```
epidermal growth factor (EGF)
platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF)
fibroblast growth factor (FGF)
nerve growth factor (NGF)
tumor angiogenesis factors (TAFs)
insulin-like growth factor (IGF)
cytokines
```
66
Stressors
The stimuli that produce the general adaptation syndrome.
67
_____ include almost any disturbance: _____, _____, _____, _____, _____, and _____.
Stressors; heat or cold, surgical operations, poisons, infections, fever, and strong emotional responses
68
Stress Response
A set of bodily changes called general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
69
Stress _____ to _____.
resets the body to meet an emergency
70
Eustress
Productive stress that helps us prepare for certain challenges.
71
Distress
Harmful stress that lowers our resistance to infection.
72
The _____ is initiated by nerve impulses from _____ to _____ and _____ and is a _____ response to stress.
alarm reaction; the hypothalamus to they sympathetic division of the ANS and adrenal medulla; short-term
73
The alarm reaction (_____ ) increases _____, promotes _____ and _____, and inhibits _____ such as _____.
(fight-or-flight) increases circulation, promotes ATP synthesis and catabolism for energy production, and inhibits nonessential body functions such as digestion, urination and reproductive tasks.
74
The resistance reaction is initiated by _____ and is a _____ reaction to stress.
hypothalamic releasing hormones; long-term
75
_____ are released during a resistance reaction and result in _____.
Corticotropin, growth hormone and thyrotropin releasing hormones; increased secretion of aldosterone, cortisol and thyroid hormone.
76
Increased levels of aldosterone act to _____ to cause _____ as well as to _____ in a resistance reaction.
conserve sodium to cause an increase in BP; eliminate hydrogen
77
_____ are produced in high concentrations during stress and have many distinct _____.
Glucocorticoids; physiological effects
78
Exhaustion is caused mainly by the loss of _____, the depletion of _____, and weakened _____. If a stress is too great it can _____.
potassium; adrenal glucocorticoids; organs
lead to death
79
Exhaustion occurs when _____.
the resources of the body have been depleted
80
Prolonged exposure to a resistance reaction leads to _____, _____, _____, and _____.
wasting of muscle, suppression of the immune system, ulcerations of the GI tract, and failure of the pancreatic beta cells
81
Stress can lead to _____ by _____
disease by inhibiting the immune system
82
People under stress are at a greater risk of _____ or of _____.
developing a chronic disease or of dying prematurely
83
_____ is the link between stress and immunity.
Interleukin-1
84
Interleukin-1 is secreted by _____ and stimulates the secretion of ______ and stimulates _____.
macrophages; ACTH; the production of an immune response
85
As we age, the production of HGH _____ and our muscles _____.
decreases; atrophy
86
Thyroid function _____ with age and results in _____ and _____.
decreases; a decrease in metabolic rate and an increase in body fat and hypothyroidism
87
After puberty, the _____ is replaced by _____.
thymus; adipose tissue
88
The adrenal glands start to produce _____ as we age.
less cortisol and aldosterone
89
As we age, our pancreatic receptor sensitivity to glucose _____ and _____.
declines and less insulin is produced
90
Ovaries will eventually no longer respond to _____ which will result in _____ which can lead to _____ and _____.
gonadotropins; a decreased output of estrogen; osteoporosis and atherosclerosis
91
Diabetes Insipidus is a dysfunction of the _____ caused by _____ and it results in _____ and subsequent.
posterior pituitary caused by hyposecretion of ADH; excretion of large amounts of dilute urine and subsequent dehydration and thirst
92
Dwarfism
A disorder caused by the hyposecretion of HGH during childhood that results in a proportional, childlike body
93
Gigantism
A disorder caused by the hypersecretion of HGH during childhood that results in a very tall person with normal proportions
94
Acromegaly
A disorder caused by a hypersecretion of HGH as an adult that results in growth of the hands, feet and facial features as well as a thickening of the skin
95
Cretinism
Underactive thyroid during infancy that results in dwarfism and retardation.
96
Hypothyroidism in adults causes...
sensitivity to cold, low body temperature, weight gain and mental dullness
97
Hyperthyroidism (_____) in adults causes...
Graves disease; weight loss, nervousness, tremors and exophthalmos
98
Exophthalmus
Bulging of the eyes
99
Goiter
An enlarged thyroid caused by a dietary lack of iodine.
100
Hypoparathyroidism leads to _____ and results in _____.
low blood calcium levels; muscle tetany
101
Hyperparathyroidism produces _____ and causes _____
excessive reabsorption of bone; bone weakness
102
Pheochromocytomas are _____ that are caused by _____ (_____ and _____) and _____.
benign tumors of the adrenal medulla that are caused by hypersecretion of the medullary hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) and a prolonged fight-or-flight response
103
Cushing's Syndrome is caused by _____ and results in _____, _____ due to _____, and _____ and _____.
hypersecretion of glucocorticoids; the redistribution of fat, spindly arms and legs due to muscle loss, and poor wound healing and easy bruising
104
Addison's disease is caused by _____ and causes _____, _____, _____, and _____ due to _____. The skin also _____ and they are at risk of _____
hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and aldosterone; hypoglycemia, muscle weakness, low BP, and dehydration due to decreased sodium levels in the blood.
darkens; cardiac arrest
105
Diabetes mellitus is a group of disorders caused by _____ that causes _____, _____, and _____.
an inability to produce or use insulin; polyuria, polydipsia and polyphagia
106
Polyuria
Excessive urine production
107
Polydipsia
Excessive thirst
108
Polyphagia
Excessive eating
109
Type I diabetes, or _____, is caused by _____.
insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus; an absolute deficiency of insulin
110
Type Ii diabetes, or _____, is caused by _____.
insulin-independent diabetes; a down-regulation of insulin receptors
111
Hyperinsulinism
A disorder characterized by the presence of too much insulin that causes hypoglycemia and possibly insulin shock
