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Fall 2022 > the diversity of life, phylogenics, prokaryotes, protists, invertebrates, vertebrtes, fungi (Exam 2 BIOL122) > Flashcards

the diversity of life, phylogenics, prokaryotes, protists, invertebrates, vertebrtes, fungi (Exam 2 BIOL122) Flashcards

1
Q

Hierarchy of Binomial Nomenclature

A

Domain (broad)
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species (specific)
“definitely keep putting condoms on for greater safety”

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2
Q

How old is the Earth?

A

4.56 billion years
- can be seen from old plants
- radiometric dating (measuring the ratio of radioactive isotopes to stable isotopes) measures how old rock is
- 1 billion of Earth’s existence before life appeared

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3
Q

3 Domains of life are…

A
  1. bacteria
  2. archaea (on the same branch as euk)
  3. eukarya
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4
Q

Phylogenics

A

the study of evolutionary relationships.
- phylogenic trees are hypnosis about how organisms are related to each other

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5
Q

Parts of a phylogenic tree

A
  • Extant groups (tips of branches)
  • time on y-axis
  • node (point of divergence between 2 groups)
  • common ancestor (root)

don’t include extinct species

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6
Q

Sister taxa

A

species that share a node

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7
Q

Does ‘more complex’ equal better adapted?

A

No, evolution is not goal-oriented
- trees do not show progress/ purpose of evolution
- trees DO show evolutionary relationships and evolution of traits

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8
Q

Principle of Parsimony

A

the simplest explanation has the highest likelihood of being correct = less changes in phylogenic trees “parsimonious”

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9
Q

Ingroup vs Outgroup

A

Ingroup: species studied; all the organisms in the phylogenetic tree but the outgroup

Outgroup: diverged before the ingroup and shares some traits; common ancestor

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10
Q

Sympleisomorphy

A

Shared ancestral traits
- present only at the root of the tree (common ancestor)

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11
Q

Synapomorphy

A

Shared derived traits
- appear along branches
- shared traits unique to a group (clade)

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12
Q

What are Prokaryotes and how do they differ from Eukaryotes?

A
  • Prokaryotes are simpler than Eukaryotic cells.
  • Both have a cell membrane, ribosomes, and DNA (prokaryotes are circular).
  • Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus
  • Prokaryotes have 3 different shapes: Spherical, rod-shaped, and spiral-shaped
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13
Q

Archaea are _______ and are more closely related to ______ than _______.

A

Archaea (on the same branch as Eukarya) are prokaryotes and are more closely related to humans than bacteria.

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14
Q

What are some common species of Prokaryotes and what role do they play in their environments?

A
  • **Cyanobacteria put first free oxygen into the atmosphere
  • STI Gonorrhea or “the clap” is super resistant to antibiotics because of artificial selection
  • Nitrogen-fixing bacteria put nitrogen into a form that other organisms can use
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15
Q

Why are Cyanobacteria Important?

A
  • they put first free oxygen into the atmosphere (most was in water and minerals) by photosynthesis
  • led to The Great Oxygenation Event (causing old bacteria to die because they could not survive with the surplus of oxygen)
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16
Q

Common misconception: Asexual reproduction is slow evolution. FALSE, why?

A

Asexual reproduction is NOT slow evolution because it uses HGT, not VGT

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17
Q

HGT: horizontal gene transfer

A

method of acquiring new genes within a generation
- between 2 individuals
- not mutation because genes are from environment

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18
Q

VGT: vertical gene transfer

A

method of reproduction across generations
- genes from parents to offspring (clone to clone)

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19
Q

How do asexually reproducing species increase heterozygosity without mutations?

A

TTC There are 3 ways that bacteria swap DNA by HGT…
- Transformation: Bacteria take up free DNA in the environment and put it in their DNA
- Transduction: transfer of DNA by viral delivery (from a virus or surviving an old infection)
- Conjugation: make a channel between bacteria which swaps DNA (closest thing to bacteria sex)

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20
Q

How did eukaryotic cells acquire a nucleus?

A

infoldings of plasma membrane creates a nucleus with DNA inside and the ER with the rest of the folds

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21
Q

How did eukaryotic cells acquire a Mitochondria? Chloroplasts?

A

Origin of Membrane Bound Organelles:
- Endosymbiotic Theory (inside interaction) by Lynn Margulis
- Early eukaryotes developed nucleus and Engulfed aerobic [requiring oxygen] prokaryote (bacteria)= Mitochondria!
- OR Engulfed photosynthetic prokaryote = Chloroplast

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22
Q

Evidence for theory is that both Mitochondria and Chloroplasts:

A
  • Contain circular DNA that is circular and of similar size to that of Prokaryotes
  • Have a double outer membrane (original prokaryotic + eukaryotic)
  • Contain 70s ribosomes like prokaryotes
  • Reproduce vis binary fision rather than mitosis
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23
Q

Endosymbiosis:

A

Symbiosis in which one organism Lives Inside another organism (mutualistic or parasitic)

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24
Q

Primary v. Secondary Endosymbiosis

A
  • Primary is eukaryote + prokaryote
  • Secondary is a prokaryote ingesting another prokaryote (has 2 nuclei) and has multiple cell membranes
  • Similar to Russian Nesting Dolls
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25
What is a Protist?
- “Misfits of the tree of life” - any eukaryote that is not a plant, animal, or fungus; is usually unicellular - Some autotropic (use photosynthesis) - Some heterotrophic (consume bacteria) - May interacts in large numbers of symbiosis - Some are pathogens (bad!!) - Ex: brown algae, molds, brain eating amoeba,
26
volvox
protist that lives in multicellular colonies with specialized cells - look like green beachballs - can coordinate movements - light sensitive
27
Which Protist groups are most closely related to plants?
Archaeplastida Ex) Red and green algae which are autotrophic. - They resulted from photosynthetic endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria
28
Which Protist groups are most closely related to Animals?
Amoebozoa & Opisthokonta - Are extremely diverse but have relationships based on DNA similarities. - Ex: Plasmodial Slime Molds
29
How do protists acquire energy (autotroph v. heterotroph) and what roles do they play in the environment?
- Heterotroph Protists acquire energy by eating material that they can digest with enzymes (Ex: living in the gut of a termite) - Autotrophic protsists quire energy by photosynthesis. Stramenopiles (Important primary producers (autotrophs) in ecosystems. Exhibit secondary endosymbosis. Ex: kelp which has air balloons in stems that keep it in a floating column)
30
What is an animal?
An animal has - nerves + muscles - can ingest food - sexual reproduction - lack of cell walls - development of the body over time (hox genes)
31
5 key innovations of animals...
- Symmetry - Tissues: specialized functions - Body Cavity (Coelom) - Patterned embryonic development - Segmentation: repeated body units
32
How do we classify animals?
- their symmetry: Bilateral (1-line symmetry) and Radial (cylindrical/ spherical symmetry). - cephalization (develops a head) - 2 types of gastrula: Diploblastic (2 germ cell layers; single mouth/ anus; Endoderm + Ectoderm ONLY) and Triploblastic (3 germ cell layers; mouth and anus; Endo-, Meso-, & Ectoderm)
33
How do animal bodies develop
- Gametes to zygote to cells to blastula (ball) to gastrula (infolding) - Organs develop out of the mesoderm germ layer. - Coelum= body cavity. The evolution of coelom leads to the development of more complex organ systems like Triploblastic (3 germ cell layers) and diploblastic (2 germ layers) - Protostome (develop mouth first) and deuterostome (develop anus first)
34
How does the relationship between surface area and volume help to explain how animals develop?
- SA:V = (SA/V) = (x2/x3) - Blastula are mittens (low SA:V) – limited interaction with external environment = less heat lost - Gastrula (in folding) are Gloves (high SA:V) – large amount of interaction with external environment = more heat lost "GG" - Larger volume = more SA required - needs lots of tiny cells!
35
Why are cells tiny?
If they were larger, they would struggle to absorb enough to survive.
36
What are invertebrates?
An animal lacking a backbone *physical flashcards*
37
What Fungi has 90% symbioses with plants?
Chytridiomycota: amphibian killer; flagellated (1n) spores that are terrestrial and aquatic Zygomycota: fruit and bread mold; can reproduce sexually/ asexually Glomeromycota: 90% are symbiotes with plants Ascomycota: valued species like truffles and yeast Basidiomycota: “club fungi”; fairy rings and mushrooms at grocery stores Lichens: mutualism of fungi and cyanobacteria/ green algae
38
What do all fungi have in common?
- have Chitin in cell walls - are absorptive heterotrophs (have nets/roots = inc SA) - terrestrial & aquatic - symbioses are common - share a common ancestor with animals and choanoflagellates (protist)
39
How do fungi acquire energy?
by being absorptive heterotrophs: secrete enzymes that digest food outside their own cells and absorb the nutrients (Can have a mutualistic relationship with plants where they attach to plant cells and either give and take nutrients)
40
How have fungi diversed evolutionarily?
- change in size and acquisition of fruits. - had flagellum to help them move around aquatic environments. - Then they started to reproduce sexually or asexually (limited resources) depending on their resources. - began to form different shapes that were beneficial to surviving like cups, nets, or clubs.
41
Cambrian Explosion
- has an unknown catalyst (might be due to increasing free oxygen from plants) - resulted in the diversification of animals - lack of fossils before this era
42
Fish-to-tetrapod transitions to include…
- Simplification of the cranium - Fewer vertebrae - More pronounced pelvic girdle (hip)
43
Mammals have 4 unifying characteristics:
"HELP" - Hair - Endothermy (warm blooded) *exception birds - Lactation (produce milk) - Placenta (live birth) *exception fish and snakes
44
What are land plants and how are they related to algae?
Land plants have a Sexual Life Cycle where they Alternate Multicellular Generations: 1.Gametophyte – produces gametes 2.Sporophyte – produces spores
45
Dominant Gametophyte
(1n)) produce gametes - Moss, liverworts
46
Dominant Sporophyte
(2n) produce spores - ferns, trees, seeded plants
47
Traits of Nonvascular plants...
- Lack tissues specialized for transporting water and nutrients, instead nutrients diffuse - grow dense, close to the ground - Thin cuticle to limit water loss - Embryo develops inside tissue to avoid desiccation - Dominant Gametophyte
48
Nonvascular plants (like moss) reproduce by
Dominant Gametophyte with 2 reproductive structures: Archegonia: produces eggs (female) Antheridia: produces sperm (male) *flagellated and require water*
49
Traits of Vascular plants
- Vascular tissues (stems) connections between roots and leaves (Xylem and Phloem) - Roots - Leaves — tissues modified for photosynthesis and gas exchange
50
Xylem
vascular tissue that transport UP water and nutrients
51
Phloem
vascular tissue that transports sugar DOWN to roots
52
Lycophytes (vascular and plants)
spike moss, quillwort, club moss
53
Pteridophytes (vascular and plants)
ferns, horsetail
54
Traits of Gymnosperms (Naked Seed) ex) pinecone
- Pollen and Ovules: Protect Gametophyte from desiccation (Pollen = Sperm -> no more flagellum!) - Seed coat: protects embryo - Bark: Protection against desiccation (drying out) & herbivores
55
Angiosperms (Flowering Plants) Adaptations include
- Enclosed seeds in ovary (Fruit) - More efficient vascular systems - Nutrient storage capacity **angiosperms have a Co-evolutionary relationship with animals, especially insect pollinators
56
What are Echinoderms and why are they deuterostomes?
Echinoderms: marine invertebrates such as Sea Urchins and Sea Stars, they have an Internal, Calcium Carbonate skeleton with radial symmetry and Decentralized nervous system (not cephalized) - Echinoderms are Deuterostomes (anus forms first) and grouped with humans and bilateria because their larvae have bilateral symmetry even though adults have radial symmetry.
57
Chordates (ex is humans) have 4 unifying characteristics..
1.Notochord – stiff rod of cartilage 2.Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord – nervous system 3.Pharyngeal Gill Slits – present even in terrestrial species during development 4.Post-anal Tail – reduced in some species
58
How are chordates differentiated from Echinoderms and other invertebrates?
they have - Vertebral Column (bony or cartilaginous vertebrae) - Head, Internal Organs, Endoskeleton - Aquatic -> Terrestrial -> Aquatic
59
What are some methods for avoiding the costs associated with interspecific interactions?
- Avoid niche (role you play in the environment) overlap and competition as a result - Character displacement - Aposematic Coloration - Cryptic coloration - Batesian Mimicry - Mullerian Mimicry - schooling/ family packs (fish) - Playing dead (possums) - Alarm calls (bird) - Toxic/ smelly defense
60
Character displacement
2 species with similar traits diverge in their mean trait values (disruptive)
61
Aposematic Coloration:
bright colors to look like unpalatable toxins/ chemicals
62
Cryptic coloration
camouflage
63
Batesian Mimicry
nontoxic species mimics a toxic species to avoid being eaten
64
Mullerian Mimicry
2 toxic species share same coloration and markings - minimizes amount of predators “learning by doing” and eating them
65
Keystone Species
species that an ecosystem depends on. Example: Human-induced predator removal of wolves in yellowstone park are a keystone species becuase they have high impact on the ecosystem compared to their relative population
66
Trophic cascade
top predator has direct (-) effect on prey, leading to a (+) effect on prey’s prey.

Fall 2022 (10 decks)

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