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Fall 2022 > the diversity of life, phylogenics, prokaryotes, protists, invertebrates, vertebrtes, fungi (Exam 2 BIOL122) > Flashcards

the diversity of life, phylogenics, prokaryotes, protists, invertebrates, vertebrtes, fungi (Exam 2 BIOL122) Flashcards

1
Q

Hierarchy of Binomial Nomenclature

A

Domain (broad)
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species (specific)
“definitely keep putting condoms on for greater safety”

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2
Q

How old is the Earth?

A

4.56 billion years
- can be seen from old plants
- radiometric dating (measuring the ratio of radioactive isotopes to stable isotopes) measures how old rock is
- 1 billion of Earth’s existence before life appeared

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3
Q

3 Domains of life are…

A
  1. bacteria
  2. archaea (on the same branch as euk)
  3. eukarya
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4
Q

Phylogenics

A

the study of evolutionary relationships.
- phylogenic trees are hypnosis about how organisms are related to each other

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5
Q

Parts of a phylogenic tree

A
  • Extant groups (tips of branches)
  • time on y-axis
  • node (point of divergence between 2 groups)
  • common ancestor (root)

don’t include extinct species

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6
Q

Sister taxa

A

species that share a node

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7
Q

Does ‘more complex’ equal better adapted?

A

No, evolution is not goal-oriented
- trees do not show progress/ purpose of evolution
- trees DO show evolutionary relationships and evolution of traits

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8
Q

Principle of Parsimony

A

the simplest explanation has the highest likelihood of being correct = less changes in phylogenic trees “parsimonious”

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9
Q

Ingroup vs Outgroup

A

Ingroup: species studied; all the organisms in the phylogenetic tree but the outgroup

Outgroup: diverged before the ingroup and shares some traits; common ancestor

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10
Q

Sympleisomorphy

A

Shared ancestral traits
- present only at the root of the tree (common ancestor)

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11
Q

Synapomorphy

A

Shared derived traits
- appear along branches
- shared traits unique to a group (clade)

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12
Q

What are Prokaryotes and how do they differ from Eukaryotes?

A
  • Prokaryotes are simpler than Eukaryotic cells.
  • Both have a cell membrane, ribosomes, and DNA (prokaryotes are circular).
  • Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus
  • Prokaryotes have 3 different shapes: Spherical, rod-shaped, and spiral-shaped
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13
Q

Archaea are _______ and are more closely related to ______ than _______.

A

Archaea (on the same branch as Eukarya) are prokaryotes and are more closely related to humans than bacteria.

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14
Q

What are some common species of Prokaryotes and what role do they play in their environments?

A
  • **Cyanobacteria put first free oxygen into the atmosphere
  • STI Gonorrhea or “the clap” is super resistant to antibiotics because of artificial selection
  • Nitrogen-fixing bacteria put nitrogen into a form that other organisms can use
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15
Q

Why are Cyanobacteria Important?

A
  • they put first free oxygen into the atmosphere (most was in water and minerals) by photosynthesis
  • led to The Great Oxygenation Event (causing old bacteria to die because they could not survive with the surplus of oxygen)
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16
Q

Common misconception: Asexual reproduction is slow evolution. FALSE, why?

A

Asexual reproduction is NOT slow evolution because it uses HGT, not VGT

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17
Q

HGT: horizontal gene transfer

A

method of acquiring new genes within a generation
- between 2 individuals
- not mutation because genes are from environment

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18
Q

VGT: vertical gene transfer

A

method of reproduction across generations
- genes from parents to offspring (clone to clone)

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19
Q

How do asexually reproducing species increase heterozygosity without mutations?

A

TTC There are 3 ways that bacteria swap DNA by HGT…
- Transformation: Bacteria take up free DNA in the environment and put it in their DNA
- Transduction: transfer of DNA by viral delivery (from a virus or surviving an old infection)
- Conjugation: make a channel between bacteria which swaps DNA (closest thing to bacteria sex)

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20
Q

How did eukaryotic cells acquire a nucleus?

A

infoldings of plasma membrane creates a nucleus with DNA inside and the ER with the rest of the folds

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21
Q

How did eukaryotic cells acquire a Mitochondria? Chloroplasts?

A

Origin of Membrane Bound Organelles:
- Endosymbiotic Theory (inside interaction) by Lynn Margulis
- Early eukaryotes developed nucleus and Engulfed aerobic [requiring oxygen] prokaryote (bacteria)= Mitochondria!
- OR Engulfed photosynthetic prokaryote = Chloroplast

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22
Q

Evidence for theory is that both Mitochondria and Chloroplasts:

A
  • Contain circular DNA that is circular and of similar size to that of Prokaryotes
  • Have a double outer membrane (original prokaryotic + eukaryotic)
  • Contain 70s ribosomes like prokaryotes
  • Reproduce vis binary fision rather than mitosis
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23
Q

Endosymbiosis:

A

Symbiosis in which one organism Lives Inside another organism (mutualistic or parasitic)

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24
Q

Primary v. Secondary Endosymbiosis

A
  • Primary is eukaryote + prokaryote
  • Secondary is a prokaryote ingesting another prokaryote (has 2 nuclei) and has multiple cell membranes
  • Similar to Russian Nesting Dolls
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25
Q

What is a Protist?

A
  • “Misfits of the tree of life”
  • any eukaryote that is not a plant, animal, or fungus; is usually unicellular
  • Some autotropic (use photosynthesis)
  • Some heterotrophic (consume bacteria)
  • May interacts in large numbers of symbiosis
  • Some are pathogens (bad!!)
  • Ex: brown algae, molds, brain eating amoeba,
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26
Q

volvox

A

protist that lives in multicellular colonies with specialized cells
- look like green beachballs
- can coordinate movements
- light sensitive

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27
Q

Which Protist groups are most closely related to plants?

A

Archaeplastida
Ex) Red and green algae which are autotrophic.
- They resulted from photosynthetic endosymbiosis of cyanobacteria

28
Q

Which Protist groups are most closely related to Animals?

A

Amoebozoa & Opisthokonta
- Are extremely diverse but have relationships based on DNA similarities.
- Ex: Plasmodial Slime Molds

29
Q

How do protists acquire energy (autotroph v. heterotroph) and what roles do they play in the environment?

A
  • Heterotroph Protists acquire energy by eating material that they can digest with enzymes (Ex: living in the gut of a termite)
  • Autotrophic protsists quire energy by photosynthesis. Stramenopiles (Important primary producers (autotrophs) in ecosystems. Exhibit secondary endosymbosis. Ex: kelp which has air balloons in stems that keep it in a floating column)
30
Q

What is an animal?

A

An animal has
- nerves + muscles
- can ingest food
- sexual reproduction
- lack of cell walls
- development of the body over time (hox genes)

31
Q

5 key innovations of animals…

A
  • Symmetry
  • Tissues: specialized functions
  • Body Cavity (Coelom)
  • Patterned embryonic development
  • Segmentation: repeated body units
32
Q

How do we classify animals?

A
  • their symmetry: Bilateral (1-line symmetry) and Radial (cylindrical/ spherical symmetry).
  • cephalization (develops a head)
  • 2 types of gastrula: Diploblastic (2 germ cell layers; single mouth/ anus; Endoderm + Ectoderm ONLY) and Triploblastic (3 germ cell layers; mouth and anus; Endo-, Meso-, & Ectoderm)
33
Q

How do animal bodies develop

A
  • Gametes to zygote to cells to blastula (ball) to gastrula (infolding)
  • Organs develop out of the mesoderm germ layer.
  • Coelum= body cavity. The evolution of coelom leads to the development of more complex organ systems like Triploblastic (3 germ cell layers) and diploblastic (2 germ layers)
  • Protostome (develop mouth first) and deuterostome (develop anus first)
34
Q

How does the relationship between surface area and volume help to explain how animals develop?

A
  • SA:V = (SA/V) = (x2/x3)
  • Blastula are mittens (low SA:V) – limited interaction with external environment = less heat lost
  • Gastrula (in folding) are Gloves (high SA:V) – large amount of interaction with external environment = more heat lost “GG”
  • Larger volume = more SA required
  • needs lots of tiny cells!
35
Q

Why are cells tiny?

A

If they were larger, they would struggle to absorb enough to survive.

36
Q

What are invertebrates?

A

An animal lacking a backbone physical flashcards

37
Q

What Fungi has 90% symbioses with plants?

A

Chytridiomycota: amphibian killer; flagellated (1n) spores that are terrestrial and aquatic
Zygomycota: fruit and bread mold; can reproduce sexually/ asexually
Glomeromycota: 90% are symbiotes with plants
Ascomycota: valued species like truffles and yeast
Basidiomycota: “club fungi”; fairy rings and mushrooms at grocery stores
Lichens: mutualism of fungi and cyanobacteria/ green algae

38
Q

What do all fungi have in common?

A
  • have Chitin in cell walls
  • are absorptive heterotrophs (have nets/roots = inc SA)
  • terrestrial & aquatic
  • symbioses are common
  • share a common ancestor with animals and choanoflagellates (protist)
39
Q

How do fungi acquire energy?

A

by being absorptive heterotrophs: secrete enzymes that digest food outside their own cells and absorb the nutrients
(Can have a mutualistic relationship with plants where they attach to plant cells and either give and take nutrients)

40
Q

How have fungi diversed evolutionarily?

A
  • change in size and acquisition of fruits.
  • had flagellum to help them move around aquatic environments.
  • Then they started to reproduce sexually or asexually (limited resources) depending on their resources. - began to form different shapes that were beneficial to surviving like cups, nets, or clubs.
41
Q

Cambrian Explosion

A
  • has an unknown catalyst (might be due to increasing free oxygen from plants)
  • resulted in the diversification of animals
  • lack of fossils before this era
42
Q

Fish-to-tetrapod transitions to include…

A
  • Simplification of the cranium
  • Fewer vertebrae
  • More pronounced pelvic girdle (hip)
43
Q

Mammals have 4 unifying characteristics:

A

“HELP”
- Hair
- Endothermy (warm blooded) *exception birds
- Lactation (produce milk)
- Placenta (live birth) *exception fish and snakes

44
Q

What are land plants and how are they related to algae?

A

Land plants have a Sexual Life Cycle where they Alternate Multicellular Generations:
1.Gametophyte – produces gametes
2.Sporophyte – produces spores

45
Q

Dominant Gametophyte

A

(1n)) produce gametes
- Moss, liverworts

46
Q

Dominant Sporophyte

A

(2n) produce spores
- ferns, trees, seeded plants

47
Q

Traits of Nonvascular plants…

A
  • Lack tissues specialized for transporting water and nutrients, instead nutrients diffuse
  • grow dense, close to the ground
  • Thin cuticle to limit water loss
  • Embryo develops inside tissue to avoid desiccation
  • Dominant Gametophyte
48
Q

Nonvascular plants (like moss) reproduce by

A

Dominant Gametophyte
with 2 reproductive structures:
Archegonia: produces eggs (female)
Antheridia: produces sperm (male) flagellated and require water

49
Q

Traits of Vascular plants

A
  • Vascular tissues (stems) connections between roots and leaves (Xylem and Phloem)
  • Roots
  • Leaves — tissues modified for photosynthesis and gas exchange
50
Q

Xylem

A

vascular tissue that transport UP water and nutrients

51
Q

Phloem

A

vascular tissue that transports sugar DOWN to roots

52
Q

Lycophytes (vascular and plants)

A

spike moss, quillwort, club moss

53
Q

Pteridophytes (vascular and plants)

A

ferns, horsetail

54
Q

Traits of Gymnosperms (Naked Seed)
ex) pinecone

A
  • Pollen and Ovules: Protect Gametophyte from desiccation (Pollen = Sperm -> no more flagellum!)
  • Seed coat: protects embryo
  • Bark: Protection against desiccation (drying out) & herbivores
55
Q

Angiosperms (Flowering Plants) Adaptations include

A
  • Enclosed seeds in ovary (Fruit)
  • More efficient vascular systems
  • Nutrient storage capacity

**angiosperms have a Co-evolutionary relationship with animals, especially insect pollinators

56
Q

What are Echinoderms and why are they deuterostomes?

A

Echinoderms: marine invertebrates such as Sea Urchins and Sea Stars, they have an Internal, Calcium Carbonate skeleton with radial symmetry and Decentralized nervous system (not cephalized)

  • Echinoderms are Deuterostomes (anus forms first) and grouped with humans and bilateria because their larvae have bilateral symmetry even though adults have radial symmetry.
57
Q

Chordates (ex is humans) have 4 unifying characteristics..

A

1.Notochord – stiff rod of cartilage
2.Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord – nervous system
3.Pharyngeal Gill Slits – present even in terrestrial species during development
4.Post-anal Tail – reduced in some species

58
Q

How are chordates differentiated from Echinoderms and other invertebrates?

A

they have
- Vertebral Column (bony or cartilaginous vertebrae)
- Head, Internal Organs, Endoskeleton
- Aquatic -> Terrestrial -> Aquatic

59
Q

What are some methods for avoiding the costs associated with interspecific interactions?

A
  • Avoid niche (role you play in the environment) overlap and competition as a result
  • Character displacement
  • Aposematic Coloration
  • Cryptic coloration
  • Batesian Mimicry
  • Mullerian Mimicry
  • schooling/ family packs (fish)
  • Playing dead (possums)
  • Alarm calls (bird)
  • Toxic/ smelly defense
60
Q

Character displacement

A

2 species with similar traits diverge in their mean trait values (disruptive)

61
Q

Aposematic Coloration:

A

bright colors to look like unpalatable toxins/ chemicals

62
Q

Cryptic coloration

A

camouflage

63
Q

Batesian Mimicry

A

nontoxic species mimics a toxic species to avoid being eaten

64
Q

Mullerian Mimicry

A

2 toxic species share same coloration and markings
- minimizes amount of predators “learning by doing” and eating them

65
Q

Keystone Species

A

species that an ecosystem depends on.

Example: Human-induced predator removal of wolves in yellowstone park are a keystone species becuase they have high impact on the ecosystem compared to their relative population

66
Q

Trophic cascade

A

top predator has direct (-) effect on prey, leading to a (+) effect on prey’s prey.

Fall 2022 (10 decks)

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