The Crisis of Empire, Revolution, and Nation Building (1754-1800) Flashcards
French and Indian War
Identify:
- Phases
War between France and Britain in the American colonies due to mutual encroachment. The War brought a shift in American Indigenous alliances.
3 phases:
1: Local affair between British colonists and French forces. Most Indigenous groups sides with the French, who were more accommodating. The British were losing.
2: William Pitt takes over. He enforces heavy handed tactics that are unpopular and resisted amongst colonists, putting the entire British effort in jeopardy.
3: Pitt works with colonial assemblies, which proves successful. France loses the war.
Fort Duquesne and Fort Necessity
French and British fort respectively, both in Pittsburgh. British fort was in response to the French one, and these forts were the prelude to the French and Indian War.
Benjamin Franklin (French and Indian War)
Proposed the Albany Plan which was rejected by the delegates. It was an attempt to organize an inter-colonial government, since the British war effort was scattered.
Albany Plan
An attempt to organize an inter-colonial government, since the British war effort was scattered.
William Pitt (French and Indian War)
Oversaw phases 2 and 3 of the war.
Treaty of Paris
France’s surrendering of almost all of its North American empire to Britain and Spain. This occurred after the loss of the French and Indian War.
Sugar Act
Post French and Indian War tax levied on the British settlers due to the heavy debt incurred by Britain as a result of constant warfare. The act actually lowered the existing tax on molasses imported into North America from French colonies in the West Indies. However, it also cracked down on smuggling in an attempt to generate more income.
Stamp Act
Departure from previous British policy. It aimed solely to raise revenue, rather than regulating trade. This provoked much resentment amongst colonists. It is often considered to be the beginning of the American Revolution era.
Quartering Act
Act that stated that if there were not enough barracks, soldiers would be housed in local pubs, inns, etc. Colonial assemblies were expected to shoulder the costs of these soldiers. These troops often supplemented their part time wages by finding work in the community. This act was in response to the influx of British soldiers following the French and Indian War.
Jeffrey Amherst
Commander-in-chief of British forces in North America who exemplified the difference between British and French approaches to local Indigenous tribes. Amherst saw gift exchanges as demeaning, unlike the French, who regularly participated tin them. The Indigenous saw gift giving as an expression of dominance and protection.
Neolin
Indigenous leader who gave an apocalyptic vision of what would happen if Indigenous people did not change their ways. He encouraged them to curb contact with Europeans and lessen infighting. This came in response to French withdrawal from North America. He helped set the stage for a unified resistance.
Ottawa Tribe
After the French and Indian War, they found themselves without allies, since British Colonists had set their sights on their traditional lands. They led a rebellion on Fort Detroit and surrounding forts and settlements. They were initially successful.
Pontiac
Leader of the Ottawa Tribe during their rebellion.
Thomas Gage
Replaced Amherst due to Amherst’s failure in dealing with the Ottawa Tribe’s rebellion. Gage ultimately broke the rebellion, but smaller skirmishes continued until the American Revolution.
Proclamation of 1763
British government drew a line through the Appalachian Mountains and ordered colonists not to settle beyond it. This came in response to Pontiac’s Rebellion. Many colonists were disappointed by this, and access to western lands was one of the first major disputes between colonists and the government.
Scots-Irish
Identify:
- Initial Destination
Presbyterians from Scotland who generations earlier had settled in Ireland. Difficult economic conditions compelled them to move to America, making them the largest immigrant group in the middle colonies.
They initially aimed to settle in Pennsylvania, where there was available land and a need for workers. The South was dominated by slavery, the North’s Puritanism enforced homogeneity, and New York City’s land was mostly taken by large estates.
Paxton Boys
Vigilante group of Scots-Irish who raided Indigenous groups on the Pennsylvania frontier.
Conestoga Indians
Group attacked by the Paxton Boys. Most Conestoga Indians were Christians.
Apology (Paxton Boys)
Paxton Boy’s presentation of grievances toward Pennsylvania legislature. They were bitter about the presence of Indigenous groups on the Pennsylvania frontier, as well as grievances against the Quaker Elite maintaining a more lenient policy.
Declarations of the Stamp Act Congresss
Asserted that only representatives elected by colonists could enact taxes on the colonies. This came from delegates of nine colonies who met up in New York following the Stamp act.
No Taxation Without Representation
Rallying cry of opponents of British policies.
Patrick Henry
Wrote the Virginia Resolves
Virginia Resolves
Came before the Declarations of the Stamp Act Congress. They called for more autonomy that went beyond moderate proposals.
Virtual Representation
British government’s response to No Taxation Without Representation. This theory claimed that MP’s represented the entire Empire, so the colonists were technically represented, despite not being voted by the colonists.
Committees of Correspondence
Spread information and coordinated resistance actions against the British. These essentially became a shadow government, challenging legislative assemblies and royal governors.
Sons of Liberty
Harassed and sometimes attacked stamp act agents.
Thomas Hutchinson
Lieutenant governor of Boston whose home was ransacked since the proprietor did not comply with the boycott of British goods.
Townshend Acts
Imposed additional taxes on the colonists after the Stamp Act crisis. These acts triggered boycotts of British goods. Locally produced goods, such as homespun clothing, became seen as virtuous substitutes for luxurious British goods.
Charles Townshend
British Chancellor of the Exchequer who made sure that the taxes imposed by the Townshend acts were on imports (external taxes) and not internal sales taxes on items.
Standing Armies
Following rioting, Britain deployed royal troops to Boston. These angered Bostonians, who viewed them ass threats to liberty. They competed with the colonists for waterfront jobs.
Boston Massacre
Occurred following a dispute between a soldier and a wigmaker’s apprentice. Colonists heckled and threw stones at the British soldiers, resulting in the troops firing into the crowd. There were 5 deaths, and the Boston Massacre was used as colonial propaganda to illustrate British troop’s brutality.
Crispus Attucks
African American killed during the Boston Massacre. He is regarded to be the first killed in the Boston Massacre, so the first killed in the American Revolution.
The Gaspee
A British revenue schooner who ran aground in shallow waters near Warwick, Rhode Island. He was searching for smugglers. Local men boarded the ship, looted it, and burnt it. The Gaspee affair marked a shift toward more militant tactics by colonial protestors.
Boston Tea Party
The Tea Act reduced taxes on tea sold by the British East India Company, whose stock value had virtually collapsed. The colonists became angry that the British were doing special favors for a large company. In response, the colonists dumped cases of tea into Boston Harbor.
Massachusetts Government Act
Part of the Coercive Acts. Brought the government of Massachusetts directly under British control. This limited the power of town meetings and allowed the royal governor to directly appoint officials, who in the past were elected.
Administration of Justice Act
Part of the Coercive Acts. It allowed British authorities to move trials from Massachusetts to Britain. Colonists viewed this as infringing on the rights of colonists to having a trial by a jury of one’s peers.
Boston Port Act
Part of the Coercive Acts. Closed the port of Boston to trade until further notice.
Quartering Act (Coercive Acts)
Expanded the scope of the 1765 quartering Act to require Boston residents to house British troops upon command.
Quebec Act
Part of the Coercive Acts, but had nothing to do with the Boston Tea Party. This enlarged the boundaries of Province and let Catholics in Quebec freely practice, which Protestant Bostonians saw as an attack on their faith.
Coercive/Intolerable Acts
Identify:
- Purpose
Massachusetts Government Act, Administration of Justice Act, Boston Port Act, Quartering Act, Quebec Act.
The British hoped that the coercive acts would make an example of Massachusetts and isolate it from the rest of the colonies. The opposite happened, and colonies resented the British for these acts.
First Continental Congress
Met in Philadelphia with representatives from each of the colonies except Georgia. This came as a response to the dissolution of the Virginian legislative assembly by the British. It marked a shift of power from royal governance to extralegal colonial bodies. They passed several resolutions that attempted to cut off all trade with Britain.
Committees of Safety
First Continental Congress called for these to enforce agreements.
Daughters of Liberty
Active in the opposition movement as protests were developing against the Stamp Act. They organized the production and distribution of homemade substitutes of Chinese and Indian teas traded from Britain.
Edenton Tea Party
A declaration signed by 51 women in North Carolina that resolved to give up tea and other British products.
Deborah Sampson
Woman disguised as a man and enlisted in the Continental Army.
Ebenezer Macintosh
Prominent leader of crowd actions in the Stamp Act period.
Thomas Paine and Benjamin Rush (pre-war)
Formed extralegal committees and militia groups in support of the revolution.
Reverend Samuel Danforth
Preached the uniqueness of Protestants in America’s mission to the world. (Errand in the Wilderness)
Protestant Evangelicalism
More intense and radical form of Protestantism which focused more on individual conversion and less centered on churches.
Bondage and Servitude
Common rhetoric used by protestant evangelicals, which helped push the ideas of republicanism. They also likened British rule to the devil, making the struggle against the British seem as as a struggle against godless tyranny.
Evangelicals View on the French and Indian War
Seen as a battle against Roman Catholicism.
Reverend John Allen (Oration Upon the Beauties of Liberty)
Baptist minister whose sermon exemplified Patriot sentiment.
Age of Revolutions
American Revolution was the frist.
Montesquieu (The Spirit of the Laws)
Argued that liberty could best be sustained by dividing the powers of government and maintaining a balance of power.
Two Treatises on Government
Written by John Locke to defend the Glorious Revolution.
Second Treatise on Government
John Locke’s argument that the ruler gains legitimacy by the consent of the governed. He argued that the basic responsibility of the government was to defend the natural rights of people. If a government fails to do this, the citizens have the right to overthrow the government. Ideas like this heavily influenced the Declaration of Independence.
Natural Rights of People (John Locke)
Life, Liberty, and Property.
Robert Filmer
Asserted the divine right of kings.
Loyalists/Tories
Wanted to retain ties to Great Britain (around 15 to 20 percent of the population).
Olive Branch Petition
Sent to King George III by Congress affirming loyalty to the Crown but blaming the current problems on Parliament. The petition called for greater autonomy and the enactment of more equitable trade and tax regulations. George III rejected the petition without reading it.
Common Sense
Written by Thomas Paine. He advocated for independence from Britain, writing that he could not see a “single advantage” in “being connected with Great Britain”. At this point, the revolution was already well underway. He argued against the logic of the Olive Branch Petition, and put the blame for the crisis on King George III.
Declaration of Independence
Formally ratified by the Second Continental Congress in July 4, 1776. It was first written by Thomas Jefferson in consultation with a 5 person committee appointed by Congress. The draft went through edits by the entire Congress. It listed grievances against King George III, but Locke’s natural rights theory was very prominent.
“All men are created equal”
“Endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights”
“The consent of the governed”
“To alter or abolish it”
Key ideas in the Declaration of Independence. The latter three ideas were directly inspired by John Locke’s political theories.
Republicanism in America (during/post war)
Identify:
- How Americans viewed themselves as Republican citizens and inspiration of ideas
Republics are country without monarchs, and the favored path for Americans. This was considered radical, since there were virtually no republics at that time since the Roman Republic.
Americans saw themselves, as republicans, as virtuous people who placed community first. They saw themselves as leading industrious, simple lives. This idea looked back on the Roman Republic. These ideas also were inspired by Puritan ideas.
Alternatively, some Americans believed that those who pursued self interest were ideal republicans. These contrasting ideas shaped many debates in the first decades of the US>
Adam Smith
Wrote The Theory of Moral Sentiments and The Wealth of Nations. These argued that rational self-interest and competition can lead to greater prosperity for all. This understanding of Republicanism put more of a focus on ambition and economical freedom.
Lexington and Concord
Towns where the first fighting began between colonists and the British. Americans often call the first shot “the shot heard round the world”. This marked the colonial situation from resistance to rebellion.
British Military Pros and Cons (Early War)
Pros:
- Highly trained and professional army
- Strongest Navy in the world
- Substantial financial resources
- Support of about a third of the colonial population
- Offered freedom to slaves who joined the British
- Supported by the majority of Indigenous groups.
Cons:
- Fought far from home, leading to difficulty maintaining supply lines over such a large theater and over a long war.
- Had enemies such as France who wished to see them defeated
American Military Pros and Cons (Early War)
Pros:
- Led by George Washington, who had several key generals
- Did not have to attack Great Britain to be victorious.
- Patriot soldiers believed deeply in the cause
Cons:
- Lack of financing
- Lack of strong central governing authority.
Nathanael Greene
Key general for the Patriots.
Henry Knox
Key general for the Patriots.
Marquis de Lafayette
French volunteer officer who fought for the Patriots.
Baron von Streuben
Prussian volunteer officer who fought for the Patriots.
Thaddeus Kosciusko
Polish volunteer officer who fought for the Patriots.
Casimir Pulaski
Polish volunteer officer who fought for the Patriots.
Phases of the American Revolutionary War
First Phase:
Primarily in New England. Great Britain had not yet grasped the depth of Patriot sentiment, and believed that the conflict was bought on by a loud minority. They suffered heavy losses in the Battle of Bunker Hill and lost Boston.
Second Phase:
Occurred primarily in the middle colonies. They aimed to keep New York in order to isolate New England. While they did drive the Patriot army out of New York City, forces coming from Canada were defeated in the Battle of Saratoga. The battle showed that Britain could control urban centers, but struggled to control vast stretches of land.
Third Phase:
Took place in the south, where loyalist sentiments were stronger and slave resentment could help the British. The strategy did not work, and Britain eventually surrendered after Yorktown.
Battle of Bunker Hill
Part of the first phase of the American Revolutionary War. Despite victory, they suffered heavy losses and had to abandon Boston.
Battle of Saratoga
Part of phase 2 of the American Revolutionary War. Major defeat of British troops coming from Canada. It showed France that colonists could mount formidable forces for battle, leading to them recognizing American sovereignty and agreeing to supply military assistance.
Savannah, Georgia, and Charleston
British victories in the third phase of the American Revolutionary War. However, these were not significant in the long run, since there was a stalemate in the North.
Benedict Arnold
Betrayed the Patriots and aided the British. Nicknamed the turncoat.
General Cornwallis
British general who lost at Yorktown.
Yorktown
Final major battle of the American Revolution, won by American-French forces. Smaller skirmishes continued until the Treaty of Paris.
Treaty of Paris (1783)
Formally ended the American Revolution.
Valley Forge
Location where Washington’s forces experienced food shortages, showing the financial troubles of the Continental Congress, who could not levy taxes on the people in its own right.
Payment of Continental soldiers
Usually certificates of frontier land due to lack of money. However, these were often used as currency, as soldiers had more immediate needs.
Views on slavery following the Revolutionary War
Political leaders were reluctant to apply language of the Declaration of Independence to slaves. In New Hampshire and Connecticut, calls for emancipation were rejected. However, slaves in Massachusetts successfully sued for freedom, including cases that cited “all men are born free and equal”, a phrase in included in the Massachusetts constitution. These decisions functionally ended slavery in Massachusetts.
Slavery in Vermont following the Declaration of Independence
Outlawed slavery in its 1777 constitution, citing the language of the Declaration of Independence.
Slavery in Pennsylvania following the Declaration of Independence
Voted to end slavery in 1780 through gradual emancipation. It stated that infants born on or after March 1, 1780 would be free after they reached the age of 28. However, many slaves ran way, sometimes aided by sympathetic whites.
Egalitarianism
Belief that everyone is created equal, which became popular with women after their experiences in the war. Many found the struggle against tyrannical rule to be similar to tyranny of husband over wife.
Abigail Adams
Wife of John Adams. In a private letter, she expressed hope that he would “remember the ladies” and give them better rights.
Republican Motherhood
Identify:
- Influence on John Locke
Asserted that women had civic responsibilities in the evolving culture of the new nation. John Locke was influenced by this, as shown in his Two Treatises on Government, that marriage should include a greater degree of consent. The experience and participation of women in the war also contributed to the changing ideas around gender.
The concept did not call for political equality, but rather asserting that women had a role to play in civic life. These ideas expanded the possibilities of women to gain an education.
American Opinions about the French Revolution
Initially supported during the first phase, where national legislature rallied against the absolutist power of the monarch. As the revolution headed into the reign of terror and the ascension of Napoleon after the fall of the Directory, Americans became increasingly divided about the events in France.
Saint Domingue
French part of the island of Hispaniola. It produced primarily sugar, and was made up of half a million slaves and 60K free people, half white half mixed.
Haitian Revolution
Identify:
- Effects on the US
Three phases:
Phase 1:
White colonists resisted French rule, inspired in part by the American Revolution and in part by the French Revolution.
Phase 2:
Mixed-race planters rebelled, challenging their second class status.
Phase 3:
Slaves rebelled aided by the Spanish, who occupied much of the country.
The revolution proved to be successful and Saint Domingue turned into Haiti, the first Black Republic in the Americas. It struck fear among southern planters, especially after fleeing whites and mixed-race people brought stores of the rebellion to communities.
Independence Struggles in Latin America
Most similar to the American Revolution. In both North America and South America, loyalists clashed with rebels, and the societies all had some sort of slavery.
Articles of Confederation
Established a weak central government, with the states retaining a great deal of power. The weakness became clear as the US faced a series of domestic and international challenges.
State Constitutions (After Second Continental Congress)
Reflected on the ideas of republicanism, and tended to be based on the idea that governing units should be relatively small and that distant power could become tyrannical. As such, many adopted some from of direct democracy. Many states strengthened the lower legislative house, which would be more responsive to the will of the people through more frequent elections. For some state, they established annual elections in the lower house, with Pennsylvania and Georgia abolishing the upper house.
State Constitution of Pennsylvania
Most radical state constitution. The older, elite leadership was sidelined after it came out against independence in 1776. The power vacuum was filled with pro-independence democratic-minded activists, such as Thomas Paine and Benjamin Rush. The constitution abolished property qualifications for voting and also abolished the office of governor. This constitution stayed in place until the 1790’s.
Benjamin Rush
Activist that helped fill the power vacuum left after the marginalization of the older elite in Pennsylvania.
Virginia’s Declaration of Rights
Included lists of individual liberties that the government was not to abridge. It inspired other states to follow suit.
Government under the Articles of Confederation
Adopted a one house (unicameral) legislature, similar to the continental congress. States could send 2-7 delegates, but each delegation would only get one vote. Routine decisions required a simple majority (7 votes), while major decisions required 9 votes, allowing 5 states to block major legislation. Changes and amendments to the document itself required an unanimous vote.
Problems with raising venue by the Articles of Confederation
The national government did not have the power to tax the people, an idea carried over from the Stamp Act Crisis. Therefore, they depended on voluntary contributions from the states, who were often tardy or resistant to proportional taxes. As such, the Continental army faced difficulties in funding.
Robert Morris
Proposed a 5 percent import tax in an attempt to slow down inflation and pay off debts acquired throughout the war. Since this required a change in the Articles of Confederation, all thirteen states had to be on board. Rhode Island and New York, who had thriving ports, rejected the projposed impost.
Impost
Import tax.
Critical Period
Between 1776 and 1789 where efforts were made to realize Republican ideals.
Shay’s Rebellion
Farmer revolted led by Daniel Shays who were frustrated with Massachusetts legislature. Local militias did not attempt to stop their rebellion. After several weeks, the government and legislature took action and suppressed the rebellion. The insurrection reflected ongoing tensions between coastal elites and struggling farmers.
Stay Laws
Suspended a creditor’s right to foreclose on farms. It was rejected by Massachusetts Legislature, angering farmers (who were already struggling, and often veterans of the war), leading to Shay’s Rebellion.
Philadelphia Convention
Called after Shay’s Rebellion. At this point, delegates were ready to scrap the entire Articles of Confederation and write something new.
Reformers in Annapolis, Maryland
Called for possible changes in the Articles of Confederation.
Western Land Claims Post-Independence
Became an area for dispute. For example, land claimed by New York clashed with land claimed by Virginia. Maryland, who had no claims, insisted it would not ratify the Articles of Confederation until all states gave up their land claims and western lands became part of a national domain. Congress eventually convinced the states to do that.
Land Ordinance of 1784
Divided the Northwest Territory into ten potential states, each with a guarantee of self government.
Land Ordinance of 1785
Reduced the number of states created in the Land Ordinance of 1784 from 10 to 5.
Northwest Ordinance
Identify:
- Policy on slavery
- How successful it was
Passed by Congress to set up a process by which areas could become territories and eventually states. Once a population of a territory reached 60,000, they could write a constitution and apply for statehood, and be on equal level as the other states.
The Ordinance banned slavery in territory north of the Ohio River.
The Ordinance is generally considered to be one of the few major successes of the government under the Articles of Confederation.
William Henry Harrison (Northwest Territory Delegate)
Successfully promoted the passage of legislation that made it easier for ordinary settlers to buy land in the Northwest Territory.
Harrison Land Law
Allowed for sales of smaller plots in the Northwest Territory, which facilitated rapid population growth.
Creation of the State of Ohio
Originally the southeastern portion of the Northwest territory.
Indiana Territory
Northwestern Territory excluding Ohio, which had become a state. This territory became the states of Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and part of Wisconsin.
Constitutional Convention
Delegates here agreed that a central government with greater power was needed. However, delegates disagreed on how this could be done; particularly, they disagreed on how various states should be represented.
Virginia Plan
Bigger states expressed discontent with the one-vote-per state system. This plan, initiated during the constitutional convention, called for a bicameral legislature where the number of representatives was proportional to the population of the state.
New Jersey Plan
During the Constitutional Convention, New Jersey called for a one-house legislature with each state getting one vote.
The Great Compromise
Compromise between the New Jersey Plan and the Virginia Plan. It created the structure of Congress, with the House of Representatives, which was determined by population, and the Senate, in which each state gets two members.
Three-Fifth Compromise
Reached following disputes over how slaves would be count toward votes in the House of Representatives. The compromise stated that southern states could count three fifths of their slave populations in the census.
Slavery in the Constitution
Tacit approval was given to slavery. The delegates voted to protect the international slave trade for 20 years, and provided for the return of fugitive slaves.
Federalists
Supporters of the Constitution. Prominent figures included Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison.
The Federalist
Highly influential political tract that outlined the failures of the Articles of Confederation and the benefits of a powerful government with checks and balances. It was a collection of articles written by Hamilton, Jay, and Madison.
Federalist Number 10
Argued that a complex government was the best guarantee of liberty, where no group could gain control and dominate others. Written by Madison.
Federalist Number 51
Madison argued for the separation of powers within the government and a system of checks and balances.
Anti-Federalists
Opposed the new constitution, who worried that the new government would be controlled by the elite. They were distrustful of distant authority, especially after British rule. There were concerns that individual rights were not protected by the Constitution (no Bill of Rights).
Patrick Henry and George Mason
Prominent Anti-Federalists.
Samuel Adams and Governor John Hancock (Constitution)
Massachusetts leaders opposed the constitution and its ratification. Followers of Daniel Shays were also active and opposed the constitution. Eventually, Massachusetts voted to approve the Constitution, which was eventually ratified by nine states, which was enough.
Bill of Rights
One of the first acts of Congress to address the condition of 7 states to ratify only if a bill of rights was passed. These formed the first 10 amendments, and was written by James Madison.
First Amendment
Contains the “establishment clause” prohibiting the establishment of an official religion. The rest dealt with various forms of freedom of expression.
Second Amendment
The right to bear arms. Some have argued that it is an individual right, while others claim it is only the right to bear arms to participate in militias.
Third Amendment
Americans would not be compelled to house soldiers, as with the Quartering Acts by the British.
Fourth Amendment
Guaranteed a modicum of privacy from searches by government officials.
Fifth Amendment
Called for grand jury indictments, and prohibits double prosecutions (Double Jeopardy).
Double Jeopardy
The practice of trying the same person for the same crime multiple times. It was explicitly prohibited by the Fifth Amendment.
Eminent Domain
The power for the government to seize private property. The Fifth Amendment prohibited this, unless the property was for a public use and the owner received just compensation.
Sixth Amendment
Guarantees suspects the right to a speedy and public trial, with a jury, conducted in the district in which the crime was committed. The suspect also has the right to be informed of the charges and the right to cross-examine witnesses giving testimony. The amendment also gave the right to call friendly witnesses and to have a lawyer.
Seventh Amendment
Guarantees the accused the right to a trial by jury, even in civil cases.
Eighth Amendment
Prevents cruel and unusual punishments and prevents the setting of excessive bail.
Ninth Amendment
Guaranteed that additional rights not mentioned in the Bill of Rights shall not be infringed on by the government.
Tenth Amendment
Dealt with governmental powers and the relationship between the federal government and the states. It asserted that powers not delegated to the government but not prohibited by the Constitution shall be retained by the states and by the people.
Fifteenth Amendment
Prohibited voting restrictions based on race.
Nineteenth Amendment
Prohibited restrictions to vote based on gender.
Twenty-sixth Amendment
Lowered the voting age to 18.
Bill of Rights on Voting
Right to vote was absent from the Bill of Rights.
Article 1 of the Constitution
Gave Congress the power to levy taxes, regulate trade, coin money, establish post offices, to declare war, and to approve treateies.
Elastic Clause
Stretched the powers of Congress to allow it to create laws it deemed necessary and proper, but this became up to debate.
Article II of the Constitution
Gave the president (executive branch) to suggest legislation, command the armed forces, and to nominate judge. The president is charged with carrying out the laws of the land.
Article III of the Constitution
Established the judiciary (Supreme Court).
Marbury v. Madison
The Supreme Court enacted Judicial Review, or the power to nullify laws deemed unconstitutional.
Reserved Powers
Certain powers heled by states.
Delegated Powers
Powers given to the national government.
Supreme Law of the Land
The national government, as outlined by the Constitution.
Shawnee, Miami, and the Delaware
Indigenous groups given weapons by the British to resist American migration. Britain insisted that they would not remove their western forces until the US repaid its war debts and allowed loyalists to recover property that had been confiscated.
Pinckney’s Treaty
Defined the border between the US and Spanish-held territory in western Florida. Spain agreed to allow for American shipping on the Mississippi River.
Thomas Pinckney and Don Manuel de Godoy
Negotiated Pinckney’s Treaty.
John Jay (Tensions between US and Great Britain)
Britain had been intercepting ships from America following war with France, and Americans were resentful the presence of British troops in America. John Jay, the Supreme Court chief justice, was sent to negotiate with the British.
Jay’s Treaty
Especially favorable to the British. The British would withdraw, but only after 18 months. The British would also make no compensations, and the Americans were forced to repay debts. Limited trading rights in the West Indies was granted.
Reactions to Jay’s Treaty
Alexander Hamilton viewed it as the best they could get, while Thomas Jefferson argued that the interests of the South had been sold out to the mercantile interests of New England. They saw the treaty as a sign of pro-British sympathies of the Hamiltonians.
America’s Position in War between France and Britain
America was officially neutral. However, the Federalists favored Britain, while the Democrat-Republicans favored France.
Charles Talleyrand
French foreign affairs minister who did not initially allow American delegates to negotiate unless 250K was paid and a 12 million dollar loan was granted. This was in retaliation to Jay’s Treaty, and 300 ships were seized by French privateers.
XYZ Affair
Talleyrand did not initially allow American delegates to negotiate unless 250K was paid and a 12 million dollar loan was granted. This was in retaliation to Jay’s Treaty, and 300 ships were seized by French privateers. The three agents who initiated this were named X, Y, and Z.
Quasi-War
Triggered by the XYZ Affair. Warships were dispatched to the Caribbean and fought French ships, but war was never declared.
Junipero Serra
Catholic priest who established the first missions in California, and represented an effort by Spain to maintain a presence along the Northern borderlands. The Spaniards extracted labor from locals.
Mission San Diego de Alcala
Revolt took place here by Indigenous groups due to horrible treatment by the Spanish. Eventually, the Mexican government abandoned the mission project.
Constitution on Indigenous Tribes
Did not view the tribes as legal entities
Congress had the power to regulate commerce among states, foreign nations, and “with Indian Tribes”. By doing this, it was made clear that the Tribes were not viewed as foreign nations, but most Indigenous were not viewed as citizens either.
Judiciary Act of 1789
Set up thirteen federal judicial districts. Each contained a district court as well as a circuit court that could hear appeals from district courts. The Supreme Court would then hear appeals from circuit courts and would have the final say. The act stipulated that the Supreme Court could hear cases on appeal from state courts if the case involving federal law, and would have original jurisdiction between civil disputes between states, or states vs. the US.
Unwritten Constitution
Several traditions and customs set by George Washington. For example, the presidential cabinet, as well as the two term limit tradition until the 22nd amendment.
Presidential Cabinet of Washingon
Department of State - Thomas Jefferson
Department of War - General Henry Knox
Treasury - Alexander Hamilton
Edmund Randolph
First attorney general mof the US.
Twenty-second Amendment
Established the two term limit officially in the constitution, following Roosevelt’s 4 term victory.
The Federalists
Identify:
- Leading theorist
- Pro-British and critical of French Revolution
- Friendly to urban and commercial interests
- More ready to use federal power to influence economics
- Leading theorist: Alexander Hamilton
The Democratic-Republicans
Identify:
- Leading theorist
- More critical to the British
- More supportive of the French Revolution (at least in the early non-violent stage)
- Favored agricultural interests
- Critical of centralized authority
- Leading theorist: Thomas Jefferson
Presidential Election of 1800
Won by the Democratic-Republicans, partially due to the strength gained by the Democratic-Republicans after the Alien and Sedition Acts backfired on the Federalists.
Economic Policy of Alexander Hamilton
Identify:
- Opposition to the plan
Established a national bank, which would hold tax revenue and act as a stabilizing force. He proposed it would be 20 percent publicly controlled, and 80 percent privately controlled. He thought it was important to keep wealthy Americans invested.
Thomas Jefferson was opposed to the national bank, stating that the Constitution did not permit Congress to create a national bank (which was not listed as a power in the Constitution).
Elastic Clause (Relation to Creation of National Bank)
Allowed Congress to do what is necessary and proper to carry out its duties. Hamilton argued that this implicitly allowed the creation of a national bank. President Washington agreed and the bank was signed into law in 1791.
Hamilton’s Plan for Debt
Insisted that the debts incurred by the national government be paid back at full value, believing this would create confidence in the fiscal solvency of the new central government.
He also called to assume state debts and to take out new loans by selling government bonds.
Debt Certificates
Identify:
- How it was affected by Hamilton’s debt plan
Had been sold by their holders due to low faith in the government. These were sold at a fraction of the price. For those who held the debt certificates when Hamilton initiated his plan, it was a financial windfall.
Funding and Assumption
Funding - Paying back national debt at full value
Assumption - Taking on and paying state debts
Report on Manufactures
Hamilton’s report to impose tariffs and subsidize American Industry. It was adopted by Congress, except to subsidize American Industry. The War of 1812 provided motivation for manufacturing.
Excise Tax on Whiskey
Hamilton’s controversial tax to pay for his ambitious plans. This made it very difficult for grain farmers.
Whiskey Rebellion
7000 grain farmers marched on Pittsburgh. Due to memories of Shay’s Rebellion, 13,000 troops marched to Pennsylvania to suppress the rebellion. In a way, it was a show of force for the new more powerful national government (as compared to Shay’s Rebellion, which was put down by privately funded militias).
Alien and Sedition Acts
Passed by the Federalist-controlled Congress. It contained 4 acts that were consistent with British sedition laws but challenged the First Amendment.
Naturalization Act
Sedition Act
Alien Friends Act
Alien Enemies Act
Naturalization Act
Part of the Alien and Sedition Acts. It made it more difficult for foreigners to achieve citizenship.
Sedition Act
Part of the Alien and Sedition Acts. Made it a crime to defame the president or congress.
Alien Friends Act and Alien Enemies Act
Part of the Alien and Sedition Acts. Allowed the president to imprison/deport non citizens.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions
Response of Jefferson and Madison to the Alien and Sedition Acts. It put forth the idea that a state could nullify a law if it was found to be inconsistent with the Constitution. However, the Acts were not slowed down, but it did raise issues about the relationship between the federal government and the states.
Neutrality Act
Issued by Washington that stayed neutral in the conflicts between Great Britain and France. He urged the US to avoid permanent alliances with foreign powers.
Farewell Address
Washington cautioned against the US being drawn into seemingly endless European conflicts. His calls for neutrality have been invoked through history, including during debates about US entrance into the world wars.
Noah Webster
Author, political thinker, and educator who asserted that American culture was separate and superior to British culture. He published 3 volumes of sets of textbooks: A Grammatical Institute of the English Language.
A Grammatical Institute of the English Language.
Published by Noah Webster. It was a three volume set of textbooks.
American Spelling Book
Published by Webster. Put forth simplified American spelling.
American Dictionary of the English Language
Expanded the American Spelling Book to be a comprehensive dictionary.
Jedidiah Morse and Geography Made Easy
Morse insisted that American schoolchildren should only use American textbooks.
Mercy Otis Warren and the History of the Revolution
Set to frame American history in a heroic light. She was an anti-federalist agitator.
Mason Weems and The Life of Washington
Glowing biography of George Washington. A later edition of the book gave the story of Washington and the cherry tree. These volumes intended to instill a nationalist spirit.
Charles Bulfinch
Architect credited with bringing the Federal style to the US after his European Style. It was characterized by simplicity and balance, as well as triangular pediment atop large, marble, columns. He wanted to draw connections between the US and ancient Greece and Rome.
Robert Adam
Scottish architect who greatly influenced American architects.
Treaty of Paris on American Indigenous Groups
Ignored the status of Indigenous in the American West.
Proclamation of 1763
Created an Indian Reserve in the land between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River.
Treaty of Fort Stanwix
Tried to solve the problem of Native land claims north of the Ohio River. It was negotiated with the Iroquois Confederacy. However, the Shawnee, Delaware, and Miami, who lived on the land, were not included in the negotiations. They protested bitterly about ceding land without their consent.
Treaty of Fort McInotsh
Wyandotte, Delaware, Chippewa, and Ottawa ceded land in the trans-Ohio River, in what has been known as the Northwest Territory.
Treaty of Fort Harmar
Addressed the issue of control of other lands north of the Ohio.
Little Turtle
Miami warrior who engaged in major battles against US troops in present day Ohio.
General Arthur St. Clair
Suffered a massive defeat against the Miami at the Wabash River. This was the most deadly battle with American indigenous.
General Anthony (Mad Anthony) Wayne
Led American forces in battle for control over Ohio. He was appointed by Washington.
Battle of Fallen Timbers
Indigenous defeated by Americans in Ohio.
Treaty of GReenville
Native groups gave up claims to most of Ohio, but this treaty only brought temporary peace.
Carolina Regulators
Backcountry farmers of North/South Carolina who challenged the policies and practices of merchants, bankers, local officials, and the colonial government.
War of the Regulation
Carolina Regulators rose up against colonial authorities. It did not change the power structure, but it did establish patterns of thought and action in the coming years against British rule.
