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ThrillerHomeschoolBiology > The cell cycle and differentiation (Unit 3) > Flashcards

The cell cycle and differentiation (Unit 3) Flashcards

1
Q

reproduction

A

the process by which parent organisms give rise to offspring

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2
Q

sexual reproduction

A

two parents produce offspring through the fusion of sex cells, which are the product of cell divisions

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3
Q

asexual reproduction

A

A single parent produces offspring. A single cell divides to produce a new, genetically identical organism

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4
Q

Cell replacement

A

When cells are damaged, they are replaced via the division of healthy cells.

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5
Q

Mitosis

A

a type of cell division that produces genetically identical daughter cells. In multicellular eukaryotes, cell division by mitosis is responsible for organism growth, tissue repair, and (in some cases) asexual reproduction

Often referring to the general process of cell division in eukaryotes. However, “mitosis” technically describes only one part of the cell division process—the splitting of replicated chromosomes into two nuclei.

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6
Q

chromatin

A

the DNA and proteins that make up a chromosome

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7
Q

nucleosomes

A

The basic structural units of chromatin which consist of DNA coiled around proteins called histones.

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8
Q

histones

A

proteins that DNA are coiled around

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9
Q

cell cycle

A

a series of organized and regulated events through which cells grow, replicate their DNA, and ultimately divide

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10
Q

interphase

A

the cell grows and replicates (makes a copy of) each of its chromosomes.

consists of the G1 (growth), S (DNA synthesis), G2 (growth). Cells that exit the cell cycle during interphase enter a non-dividing state called G0.

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11
Q

mitotic phase

A

the cell separates its chromosomes into two sets and then divides its cytoplasm, forming two genetically identical daughter cells

Mitosis + Cytokinesis

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12
Q

G1 phase (Interphase)

A

When a cell does most of its growing, which requires the cell to take in extra nutrients. During this phase, the cell increases in size, and synthesizes new proteins and organelles.

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13
Q

S phase (Interphase)

A

synthesis phase, creating

When a cell replicates its DNA. At the end of this phase, the cell contains a complete copy of each of its chromosomes. In this stage, chromosomes are not condensed; instead, they are loosely arranged in the nucleus and cannot be seen individually under a light microscope. The cell also continues to grow during this phase.

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14
Q

G2 phase (Interphase)

A

Grown, produce, and organize to prepare to split

The cell grows even more and continues to synthesize proteins and organelles. In particular, the cell makes many of the molecules and structures required for the process of cell division, and it also begins to reorganize its contents in preparation for the
[\text{M}] phase

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15
Q

G0 state (Interphase)

A

A state where a cell is no longer focused on dividing. It may stay in this state indefinitely.

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16
Q

Cytokinesis

A

the division of the cell’s cytoplasm

begins during the late stages of mitosis, typically in anaphase or telophase. During cytokinesis, the plasma membrane is drawn inward until the cytoplasm is pinched in two. Now, each new cell contains its own nucleus and organelles.

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17
Q

What is PMAT? (cell cycle)

A

Prophase , metaphase, anaphase, and telophase of mitosis

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18
Q

Prophase

A

chromosomes condense making characteristic X’s
nuclear envelope breaks into pieces
Mitotic spindle begins to form at centrosomes

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19
Q

centrosomes

A

Regions contain the material needed for building the spindle, and also function to regulate the spindle throughout mitosis

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20
Q

centromere

A

the point where two sister chromatids are attached, the center of the X

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21
Q

nuclear envelope

A

the membrane that surrounds the nucleus

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22
Q

Metaphase

A

chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate (in the middle)

mitotic spindle is attached to the centromere of each sister chromatid

centrosomes are at opposite ends of the cell and the mitotic spindle is complete, Some fibers of the spindle overlap at the metaphase plate—these will help push the poles of the cell apart as the cell divides. Other fibers are attached to sister chromatids—these will help pull the sister chromatids apart.

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23
Q

Anaphase

A

sister chromatids separate and begin to move apart. Once separated, each sister chromatid is now considered an individual chromosome

spindle fibers attached to chromosomes are broken down as the chromosomes move apart. The overlapping spindle fibers push against each other to help the cell elongate

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24
Q

Telophase

A

there is now one full set of chromosomes on either side of the cell. At this stage, chromosomes begin to decondense (become loose again)

A nuclear envelope begins to assemble around each set of chromosome

The mitotic spindle completely breaks down

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25
Q

Internal regulators (cell cycle)

A

proteins and other molecules within the cell that help it to divide at the correct rate and under the right conditions. These regulators allow the cell cycle to move forward only after certain events inside the cell have taken place.

e.g.
Cyclins
and
Cyclin-dependent kinases

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26
Q

External regulators (cell cycle)

A

signals from outside the cell. These signals help regulate the cell cycle based on environmental conditions and other external factors.

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27
Q

cyclins

A

Proteins that are synthesized (made) and broken down at specific times during the cell cycle, which causes their levels to rise and fall at different points in time. When cyclins are present, they bind (attach) to and activate another key internal regulator: the cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs).

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28
Q

Cyclin-dependent kinases

A

are enzymes that interact with specific cellular components related to the cell cycle. CDKs are typically present in the cell but are inactive, requiring the presence of cyclins to become active.

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29
Q

MPF (cell cycle

A

Maturation-promoting factor

also known as
M-phase-promoting factor or mitosis-promoting factor) is a cyclin-CDK complex that regulates the transition of a cell from the G2 to the mitotic M phase of the cell cycle. MPF is made up of two proteins: cyclin B and CDK1

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30
Q

Cyclin B

A

a cyclin whose levels vary during the cell cycle. Cyclin B levels increase during the
S and G2 phases, and peak during the M phase

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31
Q

density-dependent inhibition (cell cycle)

A

AKA contact inhibition

A physical regulator

Describes a cell’s response to physical contact with neighboring cells. When cell-surface proteins on two adjacent cells bind, signals are sent to both cells to stop dividing. This ensures that cells are growing at an optimal density in the body.

32
Q

Anchorage dependence

A

A physical regulator

Describes how a cell must be attached to some sort of surface or extracellular matrix in a tissue in order to divide. This ensures that cells are growing in an optimal location in the body.

33
Q

Hormones (cell cycle)

A

chemical regulators

Molecules produced by certain glands in the body and released into the bloodstream. Once in the blood, they can travel to and act on distant target cells. Hormones can act to encourage or suppress cell division, depending on the needs of the organism.

34
Q

Growth factors (cell cycle)

A

chemical regulators

Proteins that are released by certain cells into the extracellular environment. These proteins then bind to and stimulate other cells to divide. For example, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) is a type of molecule that stimulates cell division to help repair wounds and damaged blood vessels.

35
Q

checkpoints (cell cycle)

A

Quality control mechanisms that make sure the cell cycle progresses without errors. At each checkpoint, certain internal and external conditions must be met in order for the cell to move forward with the cell cycle. Cell cycle checkpoints help avoid errors in cell division that could lead to diseases such as cancer.

36
Q

G1 Checkpoint

A

occurs at the
G1 to S transition of the cell cycle. At this checkpoint, factors such as cell size, nutrient availability, molecular signals (such as growth factors), and whether the cell’s DNA is damaged determine if the cell moves to the next phase. If conditions are suitable, then the cell progresses from the
G1 phase to the S phase. If not, the cell will exit the cell cycle and enter the non-dividing g0 state

37
Q

G2 Checkpoint

A

occurs at the
G2 to M transition of the cell cycle. A cell will only move past this checkpoint if its DNA was correctly replicated during the
S phase. If errors or damage to DNA are detected, the cell will pause at the
G2 checkpoint so that the DNA can be repaired. If the damage is irreparable, the cell may self-destruct in a process known as apoptosis, or programmed cell death.

38
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death for self-destruction

pop goes the cell

39
Q

M checkpoint

A

AKA spindle checkpoint

Occurs between metaphase and anaphase of mitosis. At this checkpoint, chromosomes must be properly attached to the mitotic spindle at the metaphase plate for the cell to move to the next phase. Only then will the separation of sister chromatids begin. This checkpoint ensures that daughter cells receive the correct number of chromosomes.

40
Q

benign (cells)

A

non-cancerous

41
Q

malignant

A

cancerous

bad, bad, naughty cells ‘muy malo’

42
Q

Cancer

A

a disease in which some of the body’s cells divide uncontrollably, spread to other parts of the body, and invade healthy tissues

In normal cells, some genes encode proteins that inhibit (prevent) cell growth and division. In cancer cells, these genes are often mutated so that they no longer inhibit cell division.

Other genes in normal cells encode proteins that promote (encourage) cell growth and division. In cancer cells, these genes are often mutated so that they are overactive, continually promoting cell division.

43
Q

mutations

A

changes in genes

44
Q

Oncogenes

A

the mutated forms of genes that normally promote cell growth and division

overactive, promoting cell division under conditions when a normal cell would not divide.

45
Q

Tumor-suppressor genes

A

AKA negative cell-cycle regulators

genes that normally inhibit cell growth and division

46
Q

proto-oncogene

A

AKA positive cell-cycle regulators

The normal form of an Oncogene, promote cell growth and division

47
Q

cancer treatments

A

Surgery
Radiation therapy
Chemotherapy
immunotherapy
targeted therapy
hormone therapy

48
Q

Radiation therapy

A

uses high-energy particles or waves to destroy cancer cells. Radiation damages cancer cells’ DNA enough so that the cells stop dividing and die. The dead cancer cells are broken down and removed by the body

49
Q

Chemotherapy

A

involves drugs that target rapidly dividing cells, aiming to stop the growth and spread of cancer cells. Chemotherapy often affects normal cells as well, leading to side effects such as nausea and hair loss.

50
Q

immunotherapy (cancer)

A

uses the body’s own immune system to combat cancer

51
Q

targeted therapy (cancer)

A

employs drugs to precisely target and destroy cancer cells, sparing healthy cells

52
Q

hormone therapy (cancer)

A

Blocking or adding hormones to inhibit cancer growth.

53
Q

gametes

A

sex cells, has half of the number of chromosomes compared to a typical body cell

54
Q

sperm

A

the male gamete

55
Q

egg

A

the female gamete

56
Q

fertilization

A

the fusion of gametes

57
Q

zygote

A

the product of the fertilization

diploid

58
Q

development (cells)

A

the process of many mitotic cell divisions, growing into a mature organism

59
Q

Haploid cells

A

have one complete set of chromosomes

e.g. Gametes

60
Q

diploid cells

A

contain two complete sets of chromosomes

most somatic (body) cells

61
Q

somatic cells

A

body cells

62
Q

Embryonic stage

A

As soon as the zygote divides, it becomes an embryo. Early in embryonic development, the embryo is a blastocyst—a hollow ball of cells with an inner cell cluster. During later stages of embryonic development, the basic outline of the body forms, and the heart, brain, and spinal cord become visible

63
Q

Fetal stage

A

At about eight weeks into pregnancy, all of the major structures of a human are present in rudimentary form, and the embryo becomes a fetus

64
Q

order of development (human fertilization)

A

zygote
blastocyst
embryo
fetus

65
Q

Cell differentiation

A

the process by which unspecialized cells are transformed into specialized cells such as nerve cells, muscle cells, and blood cells.

66
Q

stem cells

A

Stem cells have the ability to divide many times while remaining unspecialized, and also to differentiate into specific cell types. Stem cells differ in the number of cell types they can become.

67
Q

totipotent stem cell

A

can give rise to any kind of human cell

e.g.
the zygote

68
Q

pluripotent stem cell

A

the cells that can give rise to any type of cell in the embryo

e.g.
blastocyst’s inner cell cluster

69
Q

Morphogenesis

A

the process that shapes the physical form of the developing organism

70
Q

gastrulation

A

the forming of 3 layer
ectoderm
mesoderm
endoderm

part of morphogenesis

71
Q

ectoderm

A

becomes the skin and nervous system

72
Q

mesoderm

A

becomes the muscles and bones

73
Q

endoderm

A

becomes internal organs

74
Q

what makes cells with the same DNA behave differently?

A

Gene expression

two primary patterns controlling are:
cytoplasmic determinants
inductive signals

75
Q

Cytoplasmic determinants

A

Substances found in the cytoplasm that influence gene expression patterns. These substances, which include specific RNA and protein molecules

76
Q

Inductive Signals (cells)

A

Messages sent between neighboring cells that influence how each cell behaves and develops

ThrillerHomeschoolBiology (10 decks)

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