The Biological Perspective Flashcards
network of cells that carries information
to and from all parts of the body
Nervous System
branch of the life sciences that deals with
the structure and functioning of the brain
and the neurons, nerves, and nervous
tissue that form the nervous system
neuroscience
branch of neuroscience that focuses on the
biological bases of psychological processes,
behavior, and learning;
primary area associated with the
biological perspective in psychology
biological psychology or
behavioral neuroscience
the basic cell that makes up the
nervous system and that receives and
sends messages within that system
neuron
parts of the neuron that receive messages
from other cells
dendrites
part of the cell that contains the nucleus
and keeps the entire cell alive
and functioning
soma (cell body)
a fiber attached to the soma, and its job
is to carry messages out to other cells
axon
enlarged ends of axonal branches of
the neuron, responsible for communicating
with other nerve cells
axon terminals
cells that provide support for the neurons
to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to
neurons, produce myelin to coat axons,
clean up waste products and dead
neurons, influence information processing,
and, during prenatal development,
influence the generation of new neurons
glia or glial cells
fatty substances produced by certain
glial cells that coat the axons of neu-
rons to insulate, protect, and speed
up the neural impulse
myelin
bundles of myelin-coated axons travel
together as
“cables” in the peripheral
nervous system
nerves
bundles of myelin-coated axons travel
together as
“cables” in the central
nervous system
tracts
What happens during a neural impulse?
- sodium channels open, allowing Na⁺ ions to rush inside, reversing the
electrical charge (action potential) - this reversal moves down the
axon like a chain reaction, transmitting the neural signal - once the signal passes, the sodium channels close, and the neuron
restores its resting state by pumping Na⁺ back out and allowing K⁺
to exit, re-establishing a negative internal charge - this resets the
neuron, making it ready to fire again
the neurotransmitter activates ion channels, sodium (Na⁺) enters,
generating this.
excitatory effect
the neurotransmitter blocks the signal.
inhibitory effect
when a neural signal reaches the axon terminals, it triggers
synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitters into the ______ ______.
synaptic gap
chemical messengers that enable communication between neurons
and other cells; they are inside a neuron and they are going to transmit a message
neurotransmitters
stimulates muscle contractions and is involved in memory,
arousal, and attention; too little ACh causes paralysis, while too much (e.g., from black
widow venom) leads to convulsions
Acetylcholine (ACh)
influences movement and pleasure; low levels are linked to Parkinson
’
s
disease, while high levels are associated with schizophrenia
Dopamine (DA)
affects mood, sleep, appetite, and anxiety; low levels are linked to
depression
Serotonin (5-HT)
the main excitatory neurotransmitter, essential for learning and memory;
excessive glutamate can cause neuronal damage in conditions like Alzheimer’
s and
strokes
Glutamate
the major inhibitory neurotransmitter, calming
anxiety and reducing nervous system activity; alcohol enhances GABA’
s effects, leading
to sedation
Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid (GABA)
natural painkillers that block pain signals; their release explains why
injuries sometimes don
’t hurt immediately; drugs like morphine and heroin mimic
endorphins but lead to addiction by reducing natural endorphin production
Endorphins
Once neurotransmitters have delivered their message, they must be
cleared from the synapse to allow for new signals.
This happens in three main ways. What are the three main ways?
Reuptake, Enzymatic Degradation, Diffusion
Most neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the
presynaptic neuron and repackaged for future use. Drugs like
cocaine block this process, keeping neurotransmitters in the
synapse longer.
Reuptake
Some neurotransmitters, like
acetylcholine (ACh), are broken down by specialized enzymes to
allow for rapid muscle activity.
Enzymatic Degradation
Some neurotransmitters drift away from the synaptic
gap naturally.
Diffusion
mimic or boost neurotransmitter activity ; Benzodiazepines (e.g., Valium®) enhance GABA,
reducing anxiety by calming the brain.
Agonists
block neurotransmitter effects ; Curare blocks ACh, causing paralysis
Antagonists
consists of the brain and spinal cord, which work together
to control bodily functions, thoughts, emotions, and
behaviors
central nervous system
command center of the body, processing
sensory information, making decisions, and controlling
responses; responsible for cognition, learning, memory,
and language; different regions of the brain have
specialized functions, and communication between
neurons influences various cognitive and physiological
processes
brain
two main functions of spinal cord
message transmission and reflex control
section of spine responsible for message transmission
outer section (white matter)
section of spine responsible for reflex control
inner section (gray matter)
three types of neurons that helps spinal cord to function
afferent, efferent, interneurons
neurons that carry sensory signals to the
spinal cord
afferent neurons
neurons that transmit motor commands from
the spinal cord to muscles and glands
efferent neurons
connect afferent and efferent neurons,
allowing for reflex actions
interneurons
this is controlled by the spinal cord alone, allows for very
fast response times
reflex arc
consists of all the nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
two main systems of PNS
somatic and automatic
controls voluntary muscle movements and sensory
information
somatic nervous system
controls involuntary bodily functions, such as heart rate, digestion,
and gland activity
autonomic nervous system
two divisions of ans
sympathetic and parasympathetic
in sympathy with one’
s emotions; activates during
stress, preparing the body for action ; increases heart rate, dilates pupils, releases adrenaline, and shuts down digestion
sympathetic
refers to the neurons located on either side of the sympathetic division neurons;
restores the body to normal after stress ; slows heart rate, constricts pupils, resumes digestion, and conserves energy ; responsible for most of the ordinary, day-to-day bodily functioning, such as eating,
sleeping, digesting, and excreting
parasympathetic
consists of glands that release hormones into the bloodstream, affecting various bodily functions and
behaviors
endocrine glands
secretes human growth hormone and controls or influences all other hormone-secreting glands ; located just below the hypothalamus
pituitary gland
hormone that
controls aspects of pregnancy; sometimes referred to as the“love hormone” or“trust
hormone”
oxytocin
hormone that controls levels of water in our body; acts as an antidiuretic,
helping the body to conserve water
vasopressin
secretes melatonin: a hormone that helps track day
length (and seasons) and regulates the sleep-wake cycle
pineal gland
secretes thyroxin: a hormone that regulates metabolism
thyroid gland
secretes insulin and glucagon; imbalances can lead to diabetes (too little insulin), or
hypoglycemia (too much sugar) or low blood sugar, which cases a person to feel hungry all the time
pancreas
sex glands; secretes hormones that regulate sexual behavior and
reproduction; though the brain is the master of the sexual system
gonads (ovaries & testes)
located above the kidneys, they have two sections: adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex
adrenal glands
releases epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine, aiding in the body’s
stress response
adrenal medulla
produces corticoids (steroids) that regulate salt intake, stress responses, and
provide a source of sex hormones; it also releases cortisol, which provides energy during stress
adrenal cortex
researchers study brain function by examining individuals or animals with brain
damage and see what has happened to its abilities; in animals, lesions are created by inserting an
electrode to destroy specific neurons
lesioning studies
a less harmful approach is to temporarily disrupt or enhance the normal functioning
of specific brain areas through electrical stimulation and then study the resulting changes in behavior or
cognition
brain stimulation
electrodes are implanted in the brain and connected to an
impulse generator, used to treat Parkinson
’
s, chronic pain, and some psychiatric disorders.
deep brain stimulation (DBS)
uses magnetic pulses to stimulate the brain
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
passes a weak electrical current through scalp
electrodes to alter brain activity; studied for treating PTSD, depression, and stroke recovery.
transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)
directly imaging the brain
’
s structure (the different parts) or its function (how the parts work)
neuroimaging techniques
allows us to image the brain
’
s structure while the person is still alive
mapping brain structure
uses
X-rays to detect stroke damage, tumors, and skull fractures ; involves mapping “
slices” of the brain by computer
CT Scan (computed tomography)
produces detailed brain images using a magnetic field to
align hydrogen atoms in the brain tissues
MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
estimate the concentration of specific chemicals and neurotransmitters
in the brain
MRI spectroscopy
measures white matter connectivity, useful for studying
memory and neurological disorders including Alzheimer’
s disease
diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)
measures electrical activity using scalp electrodes, used to study
sleep, seizures, and cognitive tasks
electroencephalogram (EEG)
allow the study of different stages of cognitive
processing; possible method of lie detection
event-related potentials (ERPs)
allows for the direct identification of areas of brain
activation; measures magnetic fields to study brain function, useful for dementia and autism
research
magnetoencephalography (MEG)
uses radioactive glucose to track active brain regions
during tasks
positron emission tomography (PET)
tracks oxygen levels in blood to visualize brain activity in real time,
aiding research on disorders like schizophrenia and Alzheimer’
s
functional MRI (fMRI)
increase in the wrinkling of the brain ; allows a much larger area of cortical cells to exist in the small space inside the skull
corticalization
side of the brain that specializes in language, speech,
hand-writing, calculation (math),
sense of time and rhythm–any kind
of thought requiring analysis
left brain
side of the brain that specializes in more global
(widespread) processing involving
perception, visualization, spatial
perception, recognition of patterns,
faces, emotions, melodies, and
expression of emotions
right brain
all the higher mental functions of
the brain: planning, personality,
memory storage, complex decision
making, and areas devoted to
language (in the left hemisphere of
most people) ; helps in controlling emotions by
means of its connection to the limbic
system
frontal lobe
he lacked emotional control after
the damage to his prefrontal
and orbitofrontal cortex
Phineas Gage
containing neurons responsible for
the sense of hearing and meaningful
speech ; some of its medial structures: amygdala, hippocampus
temporal lobe
part of temporal lobe involved with language
left temporal lobe (wernicke’s area)
processes information from the skin
and internal body receptors for
touch, temperature, and body
position
parietal lobe
processes visual information from the
eyes
occipital lobe
helps identify and make sense
of the visual information from
the eyes
visual association cortex
neurons that fire when an animal or
person performs an action and also
when an animal or person observes
that same action being performed
by another
mirror neurons
unable to understand or
produce meaningful language
wernicke’s aphasia
responsible for the interaction between
frontal, temporal, and motor areas
responsible for speech production
Broca’s Area
unable to speak fluently,
mispronounce words,
speak haltingly ; inability to use or understand
either written or spoken language
Broca’s Aphasia
acts as a
kind of relay station for incoming
sensory information
thalamus
instrumental in forming long-term
(permanent) declarative memories
that are then stored elsewhere in the
brain
hippocampus
plays different roles in processing
emotional, cognitive, and automatic
information ; active during cognitive tasks such
as selective attention, written word
recognition, and working memory
cingulate gyrus
regulates body temperature, thirst,
hunger, sleeping and waking, sexual
activity, and emotions ; controls the pituitary
hypothalamus
involved in fear responses and
memory of fear
amygdala
processes sensory information,
helps with reasoning and
problem-solving, and regulates
autonomic, endocrine, and
motor functions
forebrain
helps to regulate movement
and process auditory and
visual information
midbrain
helps to regulate autonomic
functions, relay sensory
information, coordinate
movement, and maintain
balance and equilibrium
hindbrain
bridge between cerebellum and the
upper sections of the brain
pons
ability to generally attend to
surroundings ; allows people to ignore constant,
unchanging information, alert to
changes in information
reticular formation
stimulates the upper part of the
brain ; keep people awake and alert
reticular activating system
where sensory nerves cross over ; controls life-sustaining functions
(heartbeat, breathing, swallowing)
medulla
controls all involuntary, rapid fine
motor movement ; controls all the little muscles needed
to keep them from falling out of their
chair
cerebellum
