Textbook Vocab Flashcards
Accuracy
the ability of an experimental result to conform to an actual, true or correct value or representation.
Acetate
a salt that is produced by acetic acid and metabolized by glial cells in the brain. Molecular formula: CH3CO2^−
Activation likelihood estimation
an algorithm used to determine coordinate-based activation of specific brain regions from neuroimaging data across multiple studies and subjects. Particularly useful in assessing the convergence of results across many different experiments.
Agonist
a molecule or ligand that activates a particular cellular receptor.
Allosteric
indirect modulation or regulation via a non-active site.
Amotivation
a lack of motivation stemming from detachment or decreased emotion or drive.
Anhedonia
a decreased ability to experience pleasure.
Antagonist
a molecule or ligand that blocks receptor activation, partially, completely or irreversibly.
Appetitiveness
the extent to which a stimuli, object or event elicits an appealing response.
Backward masking
a stimulus paradigm in which a stimulus is presented and then almost immediately covered or hidden. This conceptual model is useful for investigating spatiotemporal processing, motion perception, reaction time, etc.
Behavior sensitization
an increased motor-stimulant response to a substance that occurs after repeated use and exposure to that substance.
β spectral power
the strength of β (frequencies of approximately 13–30Hz) power contained in the EEG signal.
Biomarkers
a wide subcategory of biological or medical signs that can be examined objectively and quantified to indicate normal, pathological or pharmacological effects on biological functioning. They may also indicate disease outcomes, effects of treatment, or environmental exposure to chemicals or nutrients.
Cannabinoids
naturally occurring or synthetic compounds that modulate the endocannabinoid system, activating CB1 and CB2 receptors within the body. They may be plant-derived (e.g. tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabidiol) or produced by the human body (e.g. anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol).
Choline
a molecular precursor to acetylcholine, commonly utilized in magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) to identify the presence of brain tumors. It also serves many other functions throughout the body including neurotransmitter synthesis, cell membrane signaling, liquid transport, and methyl group metabolism.
Classical conditioning
a mechanism of learning and memory, in which one associates a relevant stimulus with an otherwise, non-relevant stimulus. Typically occurs after repeated exposure to the two stimuli together.
Cognitive-behavioral model
a theory based on the assumption that mental processes can influence emotional and behavioral (physiological) responses.
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)
a type of therapy that seeks to help patients recognize, avoid, and cope with the situations in which they are most likely to abuse drugs.
Computed tomography (CT)
a type of computerized X-ray imaging that constructs a three-dimensional image from many individual cross-sectional X-ray images, taken in succession, of an anatomical region. Used primarily in neuroscience for structural measurements of the nervous system.
Contingency management (CM)
a method that uses positive reinforcement such as providing rewards or privileges for remaining drug-free, for attending and participating in counseling sessions, or for taking treatment medications as prescribed.
Craving
the intense desire to use or obtain a substance. May be continuous, or may occur randomly or after presentation of drug-related cues.
Creatine
an amino acid that is utilized by cells under high-energy demand. This metabolite is commonly targeted in magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) to examine metabolic activity in neurons of the human brain.
Cue reactivity
a conditioned response (craving) to various stimuli that are associated (either naturally or through repeated exposure) with drug-seeking and drug-taking behaviors.
Delay discounting
the tendency to undervalue a reward or punishment that is received after a delayed time period. This concept is thought to be the underlying principle of the tendency of individuals to choose smaller, more immediate rewards over bigger rewards that require a waiting time for receipt.
Depressant
a substance that slows the activity of the central nervous system, typically through activation of GABAergic neurons. This category includes sedatives, tranquilizers, and alcohol.
Diffusivity
the pattern and nature of a substance’s ability to spread (or diffuse) throughout a system.
Dopamine
a neurotransmitter that is prevalent in brain regions that regulate movement, emotion, motivation and reward.
Drug expectancy
the cognitive and perceptual outcomes that occur from the anticipated drug effects of the user. Examining this phenomenon can provide insights into drug initiation, reinforcement, and sustained use.
Drug half-life
the time required for the concentration or amount of drug in the plasma to be reduced by one-half.
Dysphoria
the inability to derive pleasure from common non-drug-related rewards.
Ecological validity
the extent to which experimental results reflect real-world scenarios or phenomenon. This indicates the relevance of a study to generalize, inform and predict actual, real-world events.
Effort–reward calculation
the mental calculation in making a decision of the energetic cost of an action (effort) compared with the benefit of the resulting outcome (reward).
Electroencephalography (EEG)
an electrophysiological technique that records electrical conductance of cortical neurons in the brain. This technique is favorable because it is able to obtain this information with high temporal resolution.
Emotion regulation
the ability of a person to regulate and modify their emotional experiences and expression.
Endophenotype
genetic factors that are determined through genetic testing and are prevalent in association with specific behaviors, illnesses, or other psychophysiological factors. The examination of endophenotypes is utilized to better assess gene–environment interactions of psychiatric illnesses.
Etiology
the medical pursuit of the cause and origin of a disease.
Excitatory post-synaptic potential
the change in electrical conductance of a neuronal membrane at the synapse that increases the likelihood of an action potential.
FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homolog B (FosB)
an important transcription factor in neural plasticity. This gene is thought to play a vital role in the transition into addiction. It is consider to be the biological mechanism behind the concept of the metaphorical “switch” that is permanently “turned on” in addictive disorders.
Fetal alcohol syndrome
a condition that affects the developing embryo and fetus of alcohol-using mothers. It is characterized by distinct facial features and developmental problems. These characteristics include abnormal eye shape, underdeveloped maxillary bones, joint and palmar crease anomalies, anomalies, cardiac defects, post-natal growth retardation, developmental delay, mental deficiency, and central nervous system dysfunction.
Final common pathway
the mesolimbic dopamine system, the primary neural circuit responsible for reward processing, which is often referred to as the “final common pathway” as all substances of abuse pharmacologically influence this neurological pathway. It is hypothesized to be the key system effected in reward system dysfunction seen in addiction.
Fractional anisotropy
a method for evaluating white matter tracts and calculating the magnitude of directionality of diffusion of these tracts throughout the brain.
Glucose metabolism
glucose, the primary energy source for the brain, is processed by the mitochondria inside neurons and other cells in the central nervous system to produce ATP. ATP is then used throughout the cell to carry out many cellular functions.
Hallucinogens
typically referred to as psychedelics. These psychoactive substances alter perception, mood and other cognitive functions.
Hedonic set point
neurological alterations that occur after repeated substance use and continue down a cyclical path, resulting in a reduced “set point” of reward processing, meaning that everyday rewarding experiences are no longer as pleasurable as they once were, leading to continued substance use in the attempt to get back to the original “set point” of reward and pleasure.
Heritability
an estimate of the degree of variation in a phenotypic trait in a population that is due to genetic variation between individuals in that population.
Homeostasis
the biological concept that an organism will self-regulate in order to maintain stability within its biological systems.
Incentive salience
a theory that distinguishes motivation, or “wanting,” from liking or the memory of a rewarding experience of a substance. It proposes that motivation is a critical component of addiction and is essentially responsible for assigning importance and incentive to obtain a drug.
Incentive sensitization
a theory of addiction that posits that drug-induced neurological alterations in the reward system cause increased arousal to the drug and motivation to receive and use the drug. This results in a pathological “wanting” to use and obtain the drug, even though the pleasurable effects of the drug remain unchanged.
Inhalants
the volatile substances (gases or vapors) that are found in many common household products (gases, liquids, aerosols and some solids). Inhalation is often known as “sniffing,” “huffing,” “bagging” or “spraying.”
Inhibitory post-synaptic potential
change in electrical conductance of a neuronal membrane at the synapse that decreases the likelihood of an action potential.
Interoception
the brain’s ability to construct a sense of self by processing awareness of bodily sensations, behavior, and cognition.
Intoxication
includes the behavioral, physiological, and cognitive effects or alterations produced after a significant amount of a substance is consumed.
Intracranial self-stimulation
an experimental method used in laboratory animals to mimic the reinforcing effects of drug administration and produce dopamine signaling. A stimulating electrode is surgically placed in the animal’s brain, specifically in the median forebrain bundle. The animal is given the option to pull a lever/press a button and receive a small electrical stimulation to that area of the brain.
Ionic gradient
a concept of biochemistry in which cellular membranes separate electrically charged ions (Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl−) through proteins called active transporters. As ionic receptors open, these ions flow across the membrane and down the concentration gradient, causing a change in the electrical charge of the cell. This physiological mechanism is a critical component of many major biological functions at the cellular level.
Late positive potential (LPP)
a slow (300–700ms) positive event-related potential that is thought to measure attention to emotionally salient stimuli.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
a scanning technique that utilizes magnetic fields and radio waves to generate images of internal structures.
Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS)
a complimentary technique to magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). This method measures the attachment of hydrogen protons to various molecules, allowing the measurement of different tissues (to assess the mass and region of brain tumors) and various concentrations of brain metabolites.
Motivational enhancement therapy (MET)
a therapy that uses strategies to evoke rapid and internally motivated behavior change to stop drug use and facilitate treatment entry.
Motivational enhancement therapy (MET)
a therapy that uses strategies to evoke rapid and internally motivated behavior change to stop drug use and facilitate treatment entry.
N-Acetylaspartate (NAA)
this molecule is the most reliable metabolic target in magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) and is extremely concentrated throughout the central nervous system.
Narcotics
opium, opium derivatives and their partially synthetic substitutes. Derived from the Greek word for “stupor,” narcotics dull the senses and are commonly prescribed for pain relief.
Neonatal abstinence syndrome
occurs in babies after in utero exposure to opioids. It is a drug-withdrawal syndrome that includes symptoms of autonomic instability, spastic movements, irritability, poor sucking reflex, impaired weight gain and, in some cases, seizures.
Opponent-process theory
a mechanism of homeostasis. For every emotionally responsive event, the brain produces a counteracting, counteracting, opposite emotional response, drawing the net emotional reaction closer to neutral. If a positive stimulus or event is removed abruptly, the contracting negative response will continue.
Pavlovian conditioning
a learning mechanism through the paired association of two stimuli that leads to a new learned response, first described by Ivan Pavlov; also referred to as classical conditioning.
Pharmacodynamics
the biomedical study of the interaction between drug concentration, site of action, behavioral and biological effects, time course of action and intensity of effects. Understanding these components is critical in determining dose effects, toxicity and clinical outcomes.
Place preference
an experimental protocol to non-invasively measure perceived drug reward in laboratory animals. It is assumed that the more time the animal spends in an area in which it had previously received drug administration, the greater the reward response to that drug.
Positron emission tomography (PET)
a non-invasive technique that enables the measurement of physiological functioning in the brain through the utilization of radioactive tracers that measure cerebral blood flow, metabolism, neurotransmitter binding and levels of radiolabeled drugs.
Pre-potent response
the most immediate and automatic response that arises in the face of new or relevant stimuli. In many situations, these foremost and immediate responses are inhibited depending on context, environment or the consideration of other information.
Probability discounting
the tendency to assign less value to a gain that is received under probabilistic conditions than the same gain received under certain gain. Probability and value become associated, whereby the perceived value of a gain goes down as the probability of receiving it goes down.
Pyramidal cell
a type of neuron that is characterized by distinct apical and basal dendritic trees and a pyramid-shaped nucleus. These cells are abundant throughout the central nervous system, particularly in the cortex, hippocampus and amygdala. Because of their complex structure, they are able to adapt to many diverse and specialized functions.
P300
a positive (P) deflection of voltage and approximately 300ms latency of stimulus presentation to electrical change in the brain. This neural change in electrical conductance is thought to be elicited by the participant’s cognitive reaction, rather than by a physiological response to a stimulus.
Radionucleotides
nucleotides that have been tagged with a radioactive tracer.
Radiotracer
a chemical compound that binds to a particular biological molecule and emits a radioactive signal. This enables the measurement of physiological properties (e.g. receptor binding, diffusion of molecules) of a radiolabeled molecule in living subjects.
Reinforcer
any condition that increases the probability of a particular behavior. In the context of addition, it is any cue, situation or object that increases the likelihood of substance use or reinstatement.
Reinstatement
a return to substance use after a period of sustained abstinence or extinction of use.
Reliability
the consistency of experimental results across measures and/or studies. The importance of reliability is in producing results that are accurate, dependable and reproducible.
Resting-state functional connectivity (rsFC)
a type of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) analysis that examines blood flow between regions of the brain. This method allows researchers to examine how various cortical regions send signals, communicate and ultimately work with other neural regions during a period of rest.
Reward deficiency syndrome
a genetic disorder primarily affecting the DRD2 gene, causing impairment in the functioning of the dopamine D2 receptor and resulting in hypodopaminergic function. These cellular defects lead to impaired reward processing and may predispose individuals to addictive behaviors.
Risk factors
characteristics at the biological, psychological, family, community or cultural level that precede and are associated with a higher likelihood of a negative outcome.
Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
a neuroimaging technique that utilizes nuclear medicine and a γ-ray camera to construct a three-dimensional image from multiple two-dimensional images of radioactive distribution throughout the brain.
Stimulant
a substance that causes increased arousal and cognitive enhancement through neurochemical effects on monoamines, a class of neurotransmitter that includes norepinephrine and dopamine. Stimulants also stimulate other physiological systems, causing increased heart rate, blood pressure, glucose production and respiration.
Superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID)
an extremely sensitive magnetometer, capable of measuring small changes in the magnetic fields of neurons. This method provides high temporal resolution and allows real-time tracking of neuronal firing sequences.
Sympathomimetic
producing physiological effects characteristic of the sympathetic nervous system by promoting the stimulation of sympathetic nerves.
Tesla (T)
a measure of the strength or intensity of a magnetic field, typically used to assign magnetic force of a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine: the higher the Tesla value, the higher the resolution of the MRI image.
Tolerance
a condition that occurs after repeated substance use, in which more of the substance is required to produce the same level of effect that was experienced at the initial time of use.
Tractography
a method of measuring anatomical connections between brain regions that facilitate information transfer and processing across the central nervous system. This imaging tool utilizes magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technology to map white matter tracts throughout the brain.
Transduction
the cellular process of sending or receiving chemical and electrical signals, transferred through the cellular membrane at the synapse, to initiate internal cellular processes inherently and of neighboring cells.
Validity
the ability of an assessment or result to accurately measure or represent the intended concept, variable or phenomenon. Validity is dependent on reliability.
Withdrawal
a pattern of physical and psychological symptoms that occurs after abrupt cessation of substance use. These symptoms are typically negatively perceived by the user and contribute to the difficulty in remaining abstinent.
