Test rote learning Flashcards
Experiment designs: Pros and cons
Pros - can make causal claims, high internal validity
Limitations - random assignment sometimes impossible, sometimes unethical, can be low external validity
Internal validity
Shows whether a study accurately measures a causal relationship
External validity
Focuses on whether the findings can be applied to a broader population
Correlational research designs
Correlation research examines the degree to which two variables are related. A correlation is when changes in one variable are accompanied by changes in another variable
Correlational design pros and cons
Pros: Help us predict behaviours/outcomes
Could suggest a potential cause and effect relationship
Can allow researchers to examine relationships among variables that cannot be investigated by experimental research.
Reveals naturally occurring relationships
Cons: Cannot infer cause and effect and why
Descriptive/observational research methods
Observing and describing subjects behaviours, beliefs, health and abilities as they naturally occur
e.g Surveys & interviews, naturalistic and laboratory observations, clinical case study, biological & neurobiological techniques
Naturalistic observations
Observe behaviour in its natural setting, attempt to avoid influencing or controlling it.
Pros and cons of naturalistic
Pros - High external validity, collect realistic picture, generate new ideas
Cons - Must wait for behaviour to occur naturally, usually small scale, may not be representative, low internal validity, cause and effect difficult to establish
Laboratory/clinic observation Pros/cons
Strengths - better control of potential confounds in environment, specialised equipment for precise measurement, can find associations
Cons - surroundings (lab clinic) may affect results, difficult to infer cause and effect
Case studies
Observe one or a very few subjects in great depth, usually over a long period of time
Case studies pros and cons
Pros - only method appropriate for very unusual case, provide insight for future research
Cons - problems with generalising the results - anecdotal, difficult to infer cause and effect
Surveys and interview Pros/cons
Pros - can collect wide range of info that researches cannot observe e.g attitudes, beliefs, behaviours
Cons - subjects may forget or lack insight, multiple informants or methods often used to combat this, essential that sample is representative of population
Longitudinal design pros and cons
Pros - can examine change over time, can examine associations between early experiences and later behaviour/development
Cons - time, expense, attrition
Cross-sectional study- Pros/cons
Pros - quick & inexpensive to carry out
Limitations - cannot detect changes within an individual, correlations hard to interpret.
Te Ara Tika components
Tika - research design - validity, centering
Whakapapa - relationships
Manaakitanga - cultural & social responsibility
Mana - Justice & Equity
Correlation research pros and cons
Pros - high external validity, often fast and cost effective, establishes direction and strength of relationship, allows for examination of relationships
Cons - low internal validity, lack of control over variable, can’t predict why an association or relationship exists
What is the function of Broca’s area?
Broca’s area is vital for the formation of speech.
What is Wernicke’s area responsible for?
Wernicke’s area interprets spoken and written language.
What is the role of the hippocampus, and how is it related to depression?
The hippocampus is involved in memory formation and spatial navigation. It tends to be smaller in individuals with depression, and more severe depression is often linked to a smaller hippocampus.
What is the amygdala’s function and its relationship with depression?
The amygdala is involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and pleasure. In depression, the amygdala shows higher activity, which may contribute to the heightened emotional responses seen in the disorder.
What role does serotonin play in relation to depression?
Serotonin regulates sleep, aggression, eating, sexual behavior, and mood. A decrease in serotonin levels is associated with depression and an increased risk of suicide.
What is the function of norepinephrine in relation to stress and anxiety?
Norepinephrine is related to the body’s stress response and is known to trigger anxiety.
What is the role of acetylcholine in the brain?
Acetylcholine is crucial for memory, learning, and recall.
How do levels of estrogen influence mood?
Estrogen levels can alter the activity of neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine, which are involved in mood regulation.
What is the role of the limbic system, and when does it develop?
The limbic system is responsible for emotional regulation and develops over the first three years of life.
What is the major structures in the limbic system
Hippocampus and amygdala
When does the prefrontal cortex develop, and what functions does it control?
The prefrontal cortex, responsible for executive functions like decision-making and planning, continues to develop from middle childhood into adulthood.
What are the primitive areas of the brain responsible for, and when do they develop?
The primitive areas of the brain control basic body functions and sleep cycles. These areas develop early in brain development.
What is the role of the limbic system, and when does it develop?
The limbic system is responsible for emotional regulation and develops over the first three years of life.
What is occasional inattention, and how does it affect a child’s development?
Occasional inattention involves intermittent, diminished attention in an otherwise responsive environment. It can be growth-promoting if the child is in a caring, supportive environment.
What is chronic under-stimulation, and what are its effects on a child?
Chronic under-stimulation refers to ongoing, diminished levels of child-focused responsiveness and developmental enrichment. It often leads to developmental delays and can be caused by various factors.
What are the effects of cortisol release on other systems, and how does early life stress affect cortisol levels?
When cortisol is released to deal with threats, it dampens other systems, such as the hippocampus (memory) and the immune system. Children exposed to maternal depression or maltreatment often have persistently high cortisol levels later in life.
How does “toxic” stress affect cortisol levels and brain development in children?
When children experience “toxic” stress, their cortisol levels remain elevated for prolonged periods, which can alter neural systems and change the architecture of brain regions essential for learning, memory, behavior, and long-term health.
What are the three main features of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)?
1) Growth deficiency, 2) Facial abnormalities, 3) Organic brain damage.
What mechanisms are involved in how prenatal maternal chronic stress affects offspring?
The mechanisms include neuroendocrine, vascular, and immune factors.
What are the sentinel facial features of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)?
1) Smooth philtrum (the area between the nose and upper lip), 2) Thin upper lip, 3) Small palpebral fissures (short eye openings).
At what age does the brain begin to improve functions like planning and impulse control?
From around age 10 and above, the brain begins to improve functions like planning and impulse control, leading to more sophisticated and versatile thinking.
What significant brain development occurs around age 17?
Around age 17, the brain goes through a second growth spurt where the frontal lobes increase in size, and more synaptic connections are made. The final adult brain weight of 1300-1400 grams is reached in the late teens.
What happens to the brain by age 18 in terms of synapses?
By age 18, through a process called “pruning,” the brain sheds weak connections between neurons, reducing the number of synapses from 1000 trillion to 500 trillion—the same number as that of an 8-month-old baby.
What is the role of the cingulate cortex in the limbic system?
The cingulate cortex is the primary cortical component of the limbic system, involved in emotional and cognitive processing.
Reward Pathway of the brain
Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA): Produces dopamine, sends it to the nucleus accumbens.
Nucleus Accumbens: Receives dopamine, triggers pleasure, reinforces behavior.
Prefrontal Cortex: Evaluates rewards, helps decide actions based on value.
These three areas work together to motivate and guide decision-making based on rewards.
Cocaine and the Reward Pathway
Action: Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine in the brain, leading to increased dopamine levels in the synapse.
Effect on Reward Pathway:
VTA: Increases dopamine release.
Nucleus Accumbens: Heightened pleasure and reinforcement due to excess dopamine.
Prefrontal Cortex: Intensifies focus on rewarding stimuli, potentially altering decision-making and behavior.
Result: Intense euphoria followed by depressive lows, leading to a high potential for addiction.
THC and the Reward Pathway
THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol):
Action: Binds to cannabinoid receptors in the brain.
Effect on Reward Pathway:
VTA: Increases dopamine release indirectly through cannabinoid receptor activation.
Nucleus Accumbens: Enhances pleasure and reward sensation.
Prefrontal Cortex: Alters decision-making and perception of reward.
Result: Euphoria, altered sensory perception, and potential impact on motivation and cognition.
Opiates and the Reward Pathway
Opiates (e.g., Heroin, Morphine):
Action: Bind to opioid receptors in the brain.
Effect on Reward Pathway:
VTA: Increases dopamine release indirectly by modulating neurotransmitter systems.
Nucleus Accumbens: Enhances pleasure and reward sensation, reduces pain.
Prefrontal Cortex: Alters mood and perception of reward, affecting decision-making.
Result: Euphoria, pain relief, and strong potential for addiction with intense withdrawal symptoms.
Vestibular Sense
Definition: Inner ear senses balance and spatial orientation.
Function: Determines how the body is oriented with respect to gravity.
Touch conditions
Neuropathy: Reduced sensitivity or pain in extremities.
Allodynia: Pain from stimuli that don’t usually cause pain.
Tactile Defensiveness: Overreaction to touch, often seen in sensory processing disorders.
Hearing conditions
Hearing Loss: Difficulty hearing sounds at certain frequencies or volumes.
Tinnitus: Ringing or buzzing in the ears.
Auditory Processing Disorder: Difficulty in processing and interpreting auditory information.
Sight conditions
Myopia: Nearsightedness; difficulty seeing distant objects.
Hyperopia: Farsightedness; difficulty seeing close objects.
Macular Degeneration: Loss of central vision.
Color Blindness: Difficulty distinguishing between certain colors.
Smell conditions
Anosmia: Loss of the sense of smell.
Hyposmia: Reduced sense of smell.
Parosmia: Distorted sense of smell, where familiar smells are perceived differently.
Taste conditions
Ageusia: Loss of the sense of taste.
Hypogeusia: Reduced sense of taste.
Dysgeusia: Distorted taste perception, often described as metallic or sour.
Hearing at Birth
Presence: Babies can hear before birth.
Preferences:
Mother’s Voice: Preference for mother’s voice over unfamiliar voices.
Complex Sounds: Preference for complex sounds (voices and noises) vs. pure tones.
Development:
Sound Organization: Infants organize sounds into complex patterns, distinguishing human speech from non-speech sounds.
Language Sensitivity: Sensitivity to non-native language sounds decreases over time.
Early Vision
Faces: Newborns show a preference for faces overall.
Contrast Sensitivity: Prefer high contrast and contour.
Movement: Attracted to movement.
Patterns: As they get older, prefer complex patterns over simple ones.
Do Babies Feel Pain?
Yes!
CNS Immaturity: Babies may feel pain more intensely due to the immaturity of their central nervous system.
Pain Relief:
Breast Milk: Can provide soothing relief.
Sugar Solution: Helps reduce pain.
Comfort from Holding: Physical contact can alleviate pain.
Distraction: Engaging the baby in other activities can help manage pain.
Vision difficulties
Presbyopia: Harder to focus on nearby objects due to aging.
Impaired Eyesight:
Reduction in Light: Less light reaches the retina.
Lens Changes: Yellowing and thickening of the lens.
Pupil Changes: Shrinking of the pupil.
Vitreous Changes: Clouding of the vitreous body.
Light Scattering: Causes light to scatter, leading to:
Increased sensitivity to glare.
Harder to perceive color.
Harder to see in dim light.
Binocular Vision: Declines, making depth perception less reliable.
Form Perception
Definition: Organizes sensory information into meaningful shapes and patterns.
Perceptual Set: Formed when our expectations or context influence our perception.
Figure-Ground Organization:
Figure: The prominent stimuli or object that we focus on.
Ground: The background against which the figure is perceived.
Monocular Cues
Description: Use visual input from one eye.
Examples:
Relative Size: Objects that appear larger are perceived as closer.
Interposition: Objects blocking others are seen as closer.
Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance.
Texture Gradient: Texture becomes finer as distance increases.
Binocular Cues
Description: Use visual input integrated from both eyes.
Examples:
Binocular Disparity: Slight difference in images from each eye helps gauge distance.
Convergence: Eye muscles adjust to focus on close objects, providing depth information.
Perceptual Constancy
The ability to maintain a stable perception of an object despite changes in its retinal image.
Size Constancy
Perceiving an object as having a constant size regardless of changes in its distance from the observer.
Shape Constancy
Perceiving an object as having a constant shape despite changes in its orientation or angle
Color Constancy
Perceiving an object as having a consistent color despite changes in lighting conditions.
Selective attention
process of selecting one
sensory channel and
ignoring/minimizing
others
Inattentional blindness
failure to perceive a prominent object because
attention is on another task
Change blindness
failure to perceive changes in a scene when there is a
momentary interruption to views of that scene
Primary Needs
Definition: Biological necessities essential for survival.
Examples: Food, water, shelter, sleep.
Secondary Needs
Definition: Psychological desires that enhance well-being and personal fulfillment.
Examples: Social connections, achievement, self-esteem, and personal growth.
Physiological Needs
Definition: Basic biological necessities for survival.
Examples: Food, water, shelter, sleep, and air.
Safety Needs
Definition: Protection from physical and emotional harm.
Examples: Security, stability, health, and safety
Definition of Drive
A state of arousal or discomfort triggered by physiological and/or psychological needs
Types of Drives
Primary Drives:
Definition: Directly related to survival.
Examples: Hunger, thirst, and sleep.
Secondary Drives:
Definition: Learned through conditioning or association with primary drives.
Examples: Desire for money or social status.
Drive-Reduction Theory
Concept: The primary motivation behind human behavior is to reduce drives and restore a state of balance or homeostasis.
Intrinsic motivation
motivated by internal goals
i.e. doing something because it is personally rewarding to you
Extrinsic motivation
motivated by external goals
i.e. doing something because you want to earn a reward or
avoid punishment
Synaptic Shrinkage
Purpose: Synaptic connections shrink during sleep to make room for new connections the following day.
Benefits:
Memory Management: Loss of unnecessary or insignificant memories.
Brain Cleanup: Tidying up and optimizing brain function.
Timing: This process occurs when the brain is offline during sleep.
Unconditioned Stimulus
Naturally elicits a reflexive response.
Example: Food.
Unconditioned Response
Reflexive response to the US.
Example: Salivation.
Conditioned Stimulus
A previously neutral stimulus that is able to elicit a particular response after being paired with the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response
The response elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
Positive reinforcement
The presentation of a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour
Positive punishment
The presentation of an unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour
Negative reinforcement
The removal of an unpleasant stimulus after a behaviour
Negative punishmentFixed Ratio
The removal of a pleasant stimulus after a behaviour
Fixed Ratio
Reinforcement occurs after a fixed number of behavioural responses
Variable Ratio
Reinforcement occurs after variable number of behavioural responses, the average of which is predetermined.
* VR schedules usually yield the highest rates of responding, and are most resistant to extinction
Fixed Interval
reinforcement occurs for the first behavioural response performed following a specified time interval.
Variable Interval
reinforcement occurs for the first behavioural response performed after a variable time interval, the average of which is predetermined.
Three Types of Deficits
Motivational: Slow to initiate known actions.
Emotional: Appear rigid, lethargic, frightened, or distressed.
Cognitive: Demonstrate poor learning in new situations.
Internal locus of control
Belief that our own actions
determine our fate
External locus of control
Belief that our lives are
governed by forces outside
of our control, or by
people more powerful
than ourselves
Dispositional attributions
behaviour is caused by an internal or personal factor
Situational attributions
behaviour is caused by an external, or environmental factor
Fundamental Attribution Error
The tendency to attribute another person’s behavior to their personality (disposition) while ignoring situational causes.
Self-Serving Bias
The tendency to attribute personal successes to internal factors (e.g., talent, effort) and personal failures to external factors (e.g., luck, circumstances).
Sensation
activation of sense organ → neural impulses transmitted to the brain
Perception
the brain’s organisation + interpretation of sensory input
How does the limbic system contribute to the pain response?
The limbic system processes the emotional and cognitive response to pain.
What is the name of the pathway that transmits pain signals to the brain?
The spinothalamic tract.
What part of the brain is responsible for processing both the sensation and emotional response to pain?
The cerebrum, involving the somatosensory cortex, limbic system, and thalamus.
CHRONIC PRIMARY PAIN
Pain in one or more body systems that:
(a) persists or recurs for longer than 3 months,
(b) is associated with significant emotional distress and/or
significant functional disability, and
(c) includes symptoms that are not better accounted for by another diagnosis.
What type of input does the “gate” receive in ascending messages?
Ascending messages are biological in nature, involving activation of pain receptors, and can be modulated by non-painful stimuli like touch or pressure.
What type of input does the “gate” receive in descending messages?
Descending messages are psychological in nature, including factors like attention, emotional state (stress, anxiety).
Gate open
Negative emotional states
(stress, anxiety) + focused
attention = GATE OPEN
Gate closed
Positive emotional states
(acceptance, calm) +
distraction = GATE CLOSED
Active coping
Focus on trying to control pain or function despite it hurting
Passive coping
Focus on avoiding the pain
* Using medications, and
increasing clinician visits
* Avoidance of activity +
socially withdrawn
* Increased reaction to
painful stimuli
Which brain wave is associated with relaxation?
alpha
Which brain wave is linked to active thinking?
beta
Which brain wave is dominant during deep sleep?
delta
Which brain wave is associated with light sleep and drowsiness?
theta
How long does NREM Stage 1 last?
NREM Stage 1 lasts 5-10 minutes.
What happens during NREM Stage 1?
It is the transition from drowsiness into sleep, where eye movements slow, blood pressure drops, muscles relax, and the body enters a calm state.
Which brain waves start to appear in NREM Stage 1?
Slower Theta waves start to appear in NREM Stage 1.
NREM: Sleep Stage 2
Sleep deepens
Main body of light sleep
Memory consolidation + synaptic pruning
Alpha waves disappear
EEG shows slightly larger Theta waves along with bursts of:
Sleep spindles (fast, low amplitude)
K complexes (slow, high amplitude)
NREM: SLEEP STAGE 3 & 4
Also known as Delta sleep or deep sleep
Characterised by relaxed muscles, lowering of body
temperature; muscles rest and rejuvenate
Stage 3 characterised by large, slow Delta waves
When delta waves make up 50% of recorded brain activity
you have entered Stage 4 sleep
Stage 4 – Delta waves >50% of brain activity
REM SLEEP (STAGE 5)
Rapid Eye Movement (REM) Sleep:
* Named for the darting eye movements in this stage
* Stage in which most dreams occur
* EEG shows an active pattern resembling awake state
(Beta waves) but body movement is inhibited
* HR and BP increase
* Respiration becomes fast and irregular
Encoding long-term memories process
Anatomical change via neurotransmitter release
Engram created: physical memory trace in brain
Long Term Potential: gradual strengthening of the connections among neurons from repetitive stimulation
What is Semantic encoding?
Semantic encoding involves processing information based on its meaning, which leads to deeper memory.
What is Phonemic encoding?
Phonemic encoding involves processing information based on how it sounds, which is a more shallow level of encoding compared to semantic.
What is Structural encoding
Structural encoding involves processing information based on its physical or visual features (e.g., letters or appearance), which is the shallowest level of encoding.
What is the capacity of working memory?
Working memory typically has a capacity of about 7 ± 2 chunks of information.
What is the duration of information in working memory?
The duration of information in working memory is about 15-30 seconds without rehearsal.
Explicit memory
Knowing “what”
* Memory for facts, events & beliefs about the
world that we are consciously aware of
* We recall intentionally (split into semantic and episodic)
What part of the brain is associated with sensory memories?
The thalamus
Which brain structure is important for habit formation?
Striatum
Which part of the brain is linked to memories about emotions?
Amygdala
What role does the cerebellum play in memory?
It is associated with procedural memory, involving motor skills and tasks.
Which brain structure is involved in the consolidation of memories and semantic memory?
Hippocampus
Binocular Disparity
Slight difference in images from each eye helps gauge distance.
Binocular Convergence
Eye muscles adjust to focus on close objects, providing depth information.
What is Narcolepsy?
Narcolepsy is a sleep disorder characterized by excessive daytime sleepiness and sudden, uncontrollable episodes of falling asleep during the day. It can disrupt daily activities and is often accompanied by cataplexy.
What is Cataplexy?
Cataplexy is a sudden, temporary loss of muscle control, often triggered by strong emotions such as laughter, anger, or surprise. It is commonly associated with narcolepsy.
What is Insomnia?
Insomnia is a sleep disorder that involves difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or waking up too early and not being able to go back to sleep. It can result in inadequate sleep and negatively affect daily functioning.
What is Sleep Apnoea?
Sleep apnoea is a sleep disorder characterized by repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep. These interruptions can cause fragmented sleep and lead to excessive daytime sleepiness.
What is the relationship between Narcolepsy and Cataplexy?
Narcolepsy is often accompanied by cataplexy. While narcolepsy causes excessive daytime sleepiness, cataplexy causes sudden muscle weakness, leading to a temporary loss of muscle control.
What is the role of the brain stem?
The brain stem regulates essential autonomic functions such as heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing. It also serves as a conduit for motor and sensory pathways between the brain and spinal cord, regulates consciousness through the reticular formation, and controls various reflexes like swallowing, coughing, and vomiting.
What is an example of a reinforcement contingency?
A child’s mother will only give him what he wants if he says, “please.” This is an example of reinforcement contingency because it describes how a specific behavior (saying “please”) leads to receiving a reward (getting what he wants), reinforcing the behavior.
What is overgeneralisation in psychology?
Overgeneralisation is a cognitive distortion where a person applies one negative experience to all situations, leading to broad and inaccurate conclusions. For example, if someone fails at a task, they might believe they will fail at everything they attempt.
What is illusory control?
Illusory control is a cognitive bias where individuals believe they have more control over events than they actually do. This can lead to the false belief that one can influence outcomes that are largely random or out of their control.
What is depressive realism?
Depressive realism is the hypothesis that individuals with depression may have a more accurate perception of reality compared to non-depressed individuals. They may have a clearer understanding of their lack of control over outcomes and the harshness of their situation.
What is the cutaneous sense?
The cutaneous sense, also known as the skin sense, registers sensations such as pressure, warmth, and cold. It involves sensory receptors in the skin that detect various tactile stimuli.
What is the Meissner sense?
The Meissner sense refers to the Meissner’s corpuscles, which are specialized sensory receptors located in the skin that are particularly sensitive to light touch and vibrations.
What is the Merkel sense?
The Merkel sense refers to the Merkel cells, which are specialized sensory receptors in the skin that respond to light touch and pressure, contributing to the perception of texture and shape.
What is the vestibular sense?
The vestibular sense is responsible for detecting head movements and maintaining balance. It involves structures in the inner ear, such as the semicircular canals and vestibular sacs, which help in spatial orientation and coordination.
Proactive Interference
Definition: Proactive interference occurs when old information interferes with the ability to remember new information.
Example: If you learned how to drive a car with a manual transmission and later try to drive an automatic transmission, the skills and habits from driving the manual may interfere with your ability to adjust to the automatic.
Retroactive Interference
Definition: Retroactive interference happens when new information interferes with the ability to recall old information.
Example: After learning a new phone number, you might find it difficult to remember your old phone number.
What is elaborative rehearsal?
Elaborative rehearsal involves making information more meaningful by connecting it with existing knowledge or creating associations. This process enhances memory retention and recall by adding depth to the information.
What is chunking?
Chunking is a memory technique where information is grouped into smaller, more manageable units or “chunks.” This method helps increase the capacity of short-term memory and makes it easier to recall larger amounts of information.
What is maintenance rehearsal?
Maintenance rehearsal involves repeating information over and over again to keep it in short-term memory. This technique does not add meaning to the information and is less effective for long-term retention compared to elaborative rehearsal.
What is the visual-spatial sketchpad?
The visual-spatial sketchpad is a component of working memory that deals with visual and spatial information. It helps in processing and storing visual images and spatial relationships, such as remembering the layout of a room or visualizing a map
physiological dependence
Physiological dependence occurs when the body becomes adjusted to a drug, leading to tolerance and withdrawal symptoms when the drug is not used. This dependence is characterized by changes in the body’s normal functioning due to the drug’s effects.
What is imprinting?
Imprinting is a form of rapid learning that occurs during a specific critical period early in life, where a young animal forms a strong attachment and bond with the first moving object it encounters, usually its mother. This process influences the animal’s behavior and social preferences later in life. Imprinting is most famously studied in birds, such as ducks and geese.
What does Taha Whānau represent in the Te Whare Tapa Whā model of health?
Taha Whānau represents the social health dimension, reflecting the importance of family, social support, and relationships in overall well-being.
What does Taha Tinana represent in the Te Whare Tapa Whā model of health?
Taha Tinana represents the physical health dimension, encompassing bodily health, fitness, and physical well-being.
What does Taha Hinengaro represent in the Te Whare Tapa Whā model of health?
Taha Hinengaro represents the psychological or mental health dimension, including emotional well-being, mental clarity, and psychological resilience.
What does Taha Wairua represent in the Te Whare Tapa Whā model of health?
Taha Wairua represents the spiritual health dimension, encompassing spiritual well-being, beliefs, and the sense of connection to something greater than oneself.
What is brain plasticity?
Plasticity refers to the brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections throughout life. This ability allows the brain to adapt to injury, change, and new experiences by adjusting its structure and function.
Why is REM sleep often called paradoxical sleep?
Because brain wave patterns during REM sleep show heightened brain activity, similar to wakefulness, despite the person being in a deep sleep state.
Top-Down Processing
Definition: Using existing knowledge, expectations, and experiences to interpret and make sense of sensory information.
Example: Filling in missing details of a scene based on what you expect to see.
Bottom-Up Processing
Definition: Processing sensory information as it comes in, starting with the basic features and building up to a complete perception.
Example: Recognizing an object by its shape and color without prior knowledge.
Inductive Processing
Definition: Making generalizations based on specific observations or evidence.
Example: Observing that the sun rises in the east every morning and concluding it always will.
Taxonomic Processing
Definition: Categorizing information based on predefined classifications or taxonomies.
Example: Sorting animals into categories like mammals, birds, and reptiles based on their characteristics.
Parallel Processing
Definition: The simultaneous processing of multiple aspects of a stimulus or task.
Example: Recognizing both the color and shape of an object at the same time.
Subliminal Processing
Definition: Processing of information below the level of conscious awareness.
Example: Being influenced by a brief, unnoticed image or sound embedded in a media presentation.
