Biological Foundations of BHD Flashcards
What specific area of the brain is involved in planning and decision making?
The pre-frontal cortex, which is part of the frontal lobe, is involved in planning and decision making.
What functions is the prefrontal cortex associated with?
The prefrontal cortex is associated with various aspects of behavior and personality, including higher cognitive functions like planning and decision-making.
What is the role of the motor cortex?
The motor cortex is responsible for generating signals that control voluntary movements.
What does the somatosensory cortex process?
The somatosensory cortex processes sensory information from the skin, muscles, and joints.
What is the function of Broca’s area?
Broca’s area is vital for the formation of speech.
What does the visual association cortex do?
The visual association cortex analyzes visual data to form images.
What is Wernicke’s area responsible for?
Wernicke’s area interprets spoken and written language.
What does the auditory association cortex analyze?
It analyzes data about sound so that we can recognize words or melodies; it also detects discrete qualities of sound, such as pitch and volume.
What is the role of the hippocampus, and how is it related to depression?
The hippocampus is involved in memory formation and spatial navigation. It tends to be smaller in individuals with depression, and more severe depression is often linked to a smaller hippocampus.
What is the amygdala’s function and its relationship with depression?
The amygdala is involved in processing emotions, particularly fear and pleasure. In depression, the amygdala shows higher activity, which may contribute to the heightened emotional responses seen in the disorder.
How does the hypothalamus contribute to behavior and stress response?
The hypothalamus regulates motivated behaviors like eating, drinking, and sexual activity. It is a key player in the HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal) axis, which triggers the body’s stress response.
What is the possible link between the thalamus and bipolar disorder?
The thalamus acts as a relay station, processing and transmitting sensory information to the appropriate areas of the brain. There is a potential link between thalamus dysfunction and bipolar disorder, although the exact connection is still under investigation.
What role does the hypothalamus play in the stress response system?
The hypothalamus releases corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), which initiates the stress response by signaling the pituitary gland.
What is the function of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) in the stress response?
CRH is released by the hypothalamus and stimulates the pituitary gland to secrete adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
What is the role of the pituitary gland in the HPA axis?
The pituitary gland releases adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in response to CRH, which then signals the adrenal glands to produce cortisol.
What does adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) do in the stress response?
ACTH stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol, a hormone that helps the body respond to stress.
What is the function of cortisol in the stress response system?
Cortisol is a stress hormone that helps regulate various functions, including immune response, metabolism, and maintaining homeostasis during stressful situations.
How does the hypothalamus respond to cortisol levels in the stress response system?
The hypothalamus monitors cortisol levels and adjusts the release of CRH accordingly, helping to regulate the overall stress response.
What role does serotonin play in relation to depression?
Serotonin regulates sleep, aggression, eating, sexual behavior, and mood. A decrease in serotonin levels is associated with depression and an increased risk of suicide.
How is dopamine linked to mental health conditions?
Dopamine is involved in reward and pleasure pathways. It is associated with substance abuse and can be linked to psychosis, including symptoms like thought disorders, delusions, and hallucinations.
What is the function of norepinephrine in relation to stress and anxiety?
Norepinephrine is related to the body’s stress response and is known to trigger anxiety.
What is the role of acetylcholine in the brain?
Acetylcholine is crucial for memory, learning, and recall.
What function does glutamate serve, and how might it be related to bipolar disorder?
Glutamate is an excitatory neurotransmitter. It may play a role in the highs and lows experienced in bipolar disorder and is impacted by the use of lithium
How does gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) affect the brain?
GABA is an inhibitory neurotransmitter that helps reduce anxiety by slowing down neural activity.
How are circadian rhythms related to mood disturbances?
Disturbed circadian rhythms are associated with mood disturbances, including depression. Seasonal variations, such as less light during winter (Seasonal Affective Disorder or SAD), can also impact mood.
What role do cortisol levels play in depression?
Elevated levels of cortisol, a stress hormone, are often observed in individuals with depression and are linked to the body’s response to chronic stress.
How do levels of estrogen influence mood?
Estrogen levels can alter the activity of neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine, which are involved in mood regulation.
What is the significance of testosterone levels after age 50 in relation to mood?
Decreased testosterone levels after age 50 may contribute to mood changes and are linked to symptoms of depression in some individuals.
What are the primitive areas of the brain responsible for, and when do they develop?
The primitive areas of the brain control basic body functions and sleep cycles. These areas develop early in brain development.
What is the role of the limbic system, and when does it develop?
The limbic system is responsible for emotional regulation and develops over the first three years of life.
What functions do the cortical areas of the brain handle?
The cortical areas of the brain are involved in thinking and cognitive processes.
When does the prefrontal cortex develop, and what functions does it control?
The prefrontal cortex, responsible for executive functions like decision-making and planning, continues to develop from middle childhood into adulthood.
What are the primitive areas of the brain responsible for, and when do they develop?
The primitive areas of the brain control basic body functions and sleep cycles. These areas develop early in brain development.
What is the role of the limbic system, and when does it develop?
The limbic system is responsible for emotional regulation and develops over the first three years of life.
What functions do the cortical areas of the brain handle?
The cortical areas of the brain are involved in thinking and cognitive processes.
When does the prefrontal cortex develop, and what functions does it control?
The prefrontal cortex, responsible for executive functions like decision-making and planning, continues to develop from middle childhood into adulthood.
What is the role of the HPA axis in the stress response?
The HPA axis is activated by the amygdala when a threat is perceived, triggering the body’s fight, flight, or freeze response. Its function is to provide a physiological reaction to stress, with these responses being adaptive to help the body manage and survive stressful situations.
What is positive or normal stress?
Positive or normal stress involves moderate, short-lived stress responses that are a normal part of life. Learning to adjust to this kind of stress is adaptive and beneficial for development.
What is tolerable stress, and what makes it manageable?
Tolerable stress occurs during serious events like illness, frightening accidents, or parental separation. It is manageable if there is parental support that creates a safe environment.
What is toxic stress, and why is it harmful?
Toxic stress involves strong, frequent, or prolonged activation of the body’s stress management system. It becomes harmful when stressors are chronic, uncontrollable, and experienced without the support of a caring adult, leading to severe impacts on health and development.
How does the body respond to an internal or external stressor?
An internal or external stressor stimulates brain-sensing pathways, triggering the hypothalamus to release corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). CRH prompts the pituitary gland to release adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which then stimulates the adrenal glands on the kidneys to release corticosteroids (including cortisol). These steroids interact with organs, including the brain and immune system, to control basic physiological functions.
What is occasional inattention, and how does it affect a child’s development?
Occasional inattention involves intermittent, diminished attention in an otherwise responsive environment. It can be growth-promoting if the child is in a caring, supportive environment.
What is chronic under-stimulation, and what are its effects on a child?
Chronic under-stimulation refers to ongoing, diminished levels of child-focused responsiveness and developmental enrichment. It often leads to developmental delays and can be caused by various factors.
How does prolonged activation of the stress response system affect the HPA axis and brain development?
Strong, frequent, or prolonged activation of the stress response system without the buffering effects of warm interaction can alter the HPA axis. Animal studies suggest that a stress response system stuck in the “on” mode can impact development. Additionally, like other developmental processes, there is a sensitive period for the proper development of the HPA axis
What are the effects of cortisol release on other systems, and how does early life stress affect cortisol levels?
When cortisol is released to deal with threats, it dampens other systems, such as the hippocampus (memory) and the immune system. Children exposed to maternal depression or maltreatment often have persistently high cortisol levels later in life.
Clinical presentations: Toxic stress
Toxic stress is associated with hyperarousal of the stress
system
* Over-reactions to mildly stressful situations
* Presents as an impaired ability to modulate behaviour or
arousal appropriately
* Children physiologically become attuned to signs of threat
* Delays or alterations in brain development can further alter
a child’s ability to develop cognitive & regulatory skills
How does “toxic” stress affect cortisol levels and brain development in children?
When children experience “toxic” stress, their cortisol levels remain elevated for prolonged periods, which can alter neural systems and change the architecture of brain regions essential for learning, memory, behavior, and long-term health.
What are teratogens?
Chemicals or factors that have the potential to damage the fetus when exposure occurs during pregnancy (e.g., radiation, thalidomide, alcohol).
What factors influence the degree of damage caused by teratogens?
The degree of damage depends on the timing and dose of exposure.
What happens if timing and dose of exposure to a teratogen are below the teratogenic threshold?
Some exposures have little risk of causing malformation.
What is Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)?
A permanent birth defect caused by maternal alcohol use during pregnancy.
What are the three main features of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)?
1) Growth deficiency, 2) Facial abnormalities, 3) Organic brain damage.
How common is FASD compared to other conditions like Muscular Dystrophy, Cystic Fibrosis, Down Syndrome, and Spina Bifida?
FASD is more common than Muscular Dystrophy, Cystic Fibrosis, Down Syndrome, and Spina Bifida combined.
What are the sentinel facial features of Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)?
1) Smooth philtrum (the area between the nose and upper lip), 2) Thin upper lip, 3) Small palpebral fissures (short eye openings).
How does parental substance use affect children across different ages?
Parental substance use can cause serious harm at every age, from prenatal development through older childhood. The impact varies based on developmental stages, family circumstances, and protective or risk factors.
Why is the prenatal period to age 3 particularly critical concerning parental substance use?
This period is crucial due to rapid brain development and growth, making it especially vulnerable to the effects of substance use.
What are some potential outcomes for offspring of mothers experiencing chronic prenatal stress?
Offspring may develop emotional, behavioral, and cognitive problems, including anxiety, ADHD, language delay, and conduct issues.
What mechanisms are involved in how prenatal maternal chronic stress affects offspring?
The mechanisms include neuroendocrine, vascular, and immune factors.
How does chronic high cortisol impact children’s stress response and sensitivity?
Chronic high cortisol levels prime the nervous system into a state of overactivation, leading to a low threshold for stress and increased sensitivity to adverse experiences.
How does prenatal stress affect learning and memory in children?
It impairs learning by reducing growth in the hippocampus, a key structure for memory.
Why is Addiction a problem?
Most individuals in addiction treatment have
Past Trauma including sexual and physical abuse
25% have PTSD
Parental substance use themselves
Deprivation
Adverse experiences
Co- occurring mental illness (40%)
At what age does the brain begin to improve functions like planning and impulse control?
From around age 10 and above, the brain begins to improve functions like planning and impulse control, leading to more sophisticated and versatile thinking.
What significant brain development occurs around age 17?
Around age 17, the brain goes through a second growth spurt where the frontal lobes increase in size, and more synaptic connections are made. The final adult brain weight of 1300-1400 grams is reached in the late teens.
What happens to the brain by age 18 in terms of synapses?
By age 18, through a process called “pruning,” the brain sheds weak connections between neurons, reducing the number of synapses from 1000 trillion to 500 trillion—the same number as that of an 8-month-old baby.
What are the adverse impacts of cannabis on brain and overall health?
Cannabis use is associated with increased risk of dependence, other drug abuse, poor educational outcomes (cognition, IQ), poor mental health (psychosis, anxiety), and poor physical health (respiratory disease, cancer).
How does alcohol affect the brain’s ability to store new information?
Alcohol interferes with storing new information as memories.
What is the impact of alcohol use on normal brain “wiring”?
Alcohol use interrupts normal brain “wiring” by slowing down brain activity and development.
When did most alcoholics in America begin drinking?
Most alcoholics in America began drinking before age 18.
How does alcohol consumption affect the hippocampus in underage drinkers?
The brain hippocampus, responsible for learning and memory, can be 10% smaller in underage drinkers.
How long does it take for a human brain to fully develop?
A human brain takes about 23-25 years to fully develop.
What are psychoactive drugs and how do they affect behavior?
Psychoactive drugs are chemical substances that temporarily change conscious awareness, affecting mood, cognition, perception, memory, and behavior. Substance abuse refers to the non-medical use of these drugs to produce pleasure or alter consciousness.
What is the role of the cingulate cortex in the limbic system?
The cingulate cortex is the primary cortical component of the limbic system, involved in emotional and cognitive processing.
Reward Pathway of the brain
Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA): Produces dopamine, sends it to the nucleus accumbens.
Nucleus Accumbens: Receives dopamine, triggers pleasure, reinforces behavior.
Prefrontal Cortex: Evaluates rewards, helps decide actions based on value.
These three areas work together to motivate and guide decision-making based on rewards.
Intoxication
alteration in brain function due to drug use.
Tolerance
Reduction in the effect of a drug as a result of repeated
use à need to take more of a psychoactive drug to in order to produce the same effect.
Withdrawal
unpleasant effects of reducing or stopping consumption of a drug after habitual use.
Tends to have the opposite effect to intoxication
Dependence
The mind or body becomes adjusted to and depends
on a drug
Addiction
chronic, relapsing disorder characterized by compulsive
drug seeking and use despite adverse consequences
Stimulants
Increase CNS activity; boost arousal, speed up mental and physical activity.
Examples: Methamphetamines, caffeine, cocaine, nicotine.
Psychedelics
Alter perception, mood, and thought; may cause hallucinations.
Examples: LSD, marijuana, MDMA (ecstasy), ketamine, magic mushrooms.
Opiates
Suppress sensation and response; relieve pain, induce sleep.
Examples: Codeine, morphine, fentanyl, heroin.
Depressants
Decrease CNS activity; reduce awareness, slow bodily functions.
Examples: Alcohol, GHB, benzodiazepines, barbiturates.
Stimulants
Stimulants: Nicotine, caffeine, cocaine, methamphetamines, amphetamines.
Cocaine:
Action: Affects neurotransmitter dopamine.
Effects: May alter behaviors related to the reward system, including motivation for food, sex, and nurturing.
Side Effects: Causes euphoric highs followed by depressive lows.
Cocaine and the Reward Pathway
Action: Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine in the brain, leading to increased dopamine levels in the synapse.
Effect on Reward Pathway:
VTA: Increases dopamine release.
Nucleus Accumbens: Heightened pleasure and reinforcement due to excess dopamine.
Prefrontal Cortex: Intensifies focus on rewarding stimuli, potentially altering decision-making and behavior.
Result: Intense euphoria followed by depressive lows, leading to a high potential for addiction.
Psychedelics
Examples: LSD, Ecstasy (MDMA), Marijuana (THC: Tetrahydrocannabinol).
Ecstasy (MDMA) and LSD:
Action: Bind to serotonin receptors.
Effect: Increase serotonergic neurotransmission, altering mood and perception.
Result: Dramatic changes in mood, perception, and thought; potential for hallucinations.
THC and the Reward Pathway
THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol):
Action: Binds to cannabinoid receptors in the brain.
Effect on Reward Pathway:
VTA: Increases dopamine release indirectly through cannabinoid receptor activation.
Nucleus Accumbens: Enhances pleasure and reward sensation.
Prefrontal Cortex: Alters decision-making and perception of reward.
Result: Euphoria, altered sensory perception, and potential impact on motivation and cognition.
Opiates
Examples: Heroin, opium, morphine.
Action: Bind to opioid receptors, the same receptors as endorphins.
Effects:
Physical Sensation: Suppress sensation and response to stimulation.
Mood: Powerful effects on mood, pain, and pleasure.
Addiction: Highly addictive with severe physical withdrawal symptoms.
Opiates and the Reward Pathway
Opiates (e.g., Heroin, Morphine):
Action: Bind to opioid receptors in the brain.
Effect on Reward Pathway:
VTA: Increases dopamine release indirectly by modulating neurotransmitter systems.
Nucleus Accumbens: Enhances pleasure and reward sensation, reduces pain.
Prefrontal Cortex: Alters mood and perception of reward, affecting decision-making.
Result: Euphoria, pain relief, and strong potential for addiction with intense withdrawal symptoms.
Transduction
The process of converting external energy or substances into electrical activity within neurons.
Depressants
Action: Decrease CNS activity; reduce awareness of external stimuli and slow down bodily functions.
Examples: Alcohol.
Effects of Alcohol:
Impact: Affects mood, behavior, personal life, and physical health.
Abuse: Most commonly abused drug.
Health Guidance: Practitioners are encouraged to screen for risky alcohol use and support efforts to reduce harmful consumption.
Absolute Threshold
The lowest level of a stimulus needed for the nervous system to detect it 50% of the time.
Weber’s Law
There is a constant proportional relationship between the smallest detectable change in a stimulus and the original stimulus intensity.
Sight/Vision
Stimuli: Light
Sense Organ/Receptor: Eyes
Hearing/Auditory Processes
Stimuli: Sound waves (vibrating air molecules)
Sense Organ/Receptor: Ears
Touch
Stimuli: Physical contact (pressure, temperature, texture)
Sense Organ/Receptor: Skin
Smell/Olfaction
Stimuli: Odorant molecules in the air
Sense Organ/Receptor: Nose
Taste/Gustation
Stimuli: Flavoring of food and other molecules (e.g., sweet, sour, salty, bitter)
Sense Organ/Receptor: Taste buds on the tongue
Pain
Definition: Body’s response to harmful stimuli.
Importance: Critical for survival.
Vestibular Sense
Definition: Inner ear senses balance and spatial orientation.
Function: Determines how the body is oriented with respect to gravity.
Proprioception/Kinaesthetic Sense
Definition: Awareness of body position and movement of body parts relative to one another.
Function: Helps in understanding body position and coordinating movements.
Somatosensory & Body Position Senses
Somatosensory Senses: Include touch, temperature, and pain.
Body Position Senses: Include vestibular sense and proprioception.
Touch conditions
Neuropathy: Reduced sensitivity or pain in extremities.
Allodynia: Pain from stimuli that don’t usually cause pain.
Tactile Defensiveness: Overreaction to touch, often seen in sensory processing disorders.
Hearing conditions
Hearing Loss: Difficulty hearing sounds at certain frequencies or volumes.
Tinnitus: Ringing or buzzing in the ears.
Auditory Processing Disorder: Difficulty in processing and interpreting auditory information.
Sight conditions
Myopia: Nearsightedness; difficulty seeing distant objects.
Hyperopia: Farsightedness; difficulty seeing close objects.
Macular Degeneration: Loss of central vision.
Color Blindness: Difficulty distinguishing between certain colors.
Smell conditions
Anosmia: Loss of the sense of smell.
Hyposmia: Reduced sense of smell.
Parosmia: Distorted sense of smell, where familiar smells are perceived differently.
Taste conditions
Ageusia: Loss of the sense of taste.
Hypogeusia: Reduced sense of taste.
Dysgeusia: Distorted taste perception, often described as metallic or sour.
Taste at Birth
Presence: Developed at birth.
Function: Newborns are attracted to the taste of mother’s milk, which is critical for feeding and survival.
Smell at Birth
Presence: Developed at birth.
Function: Newborns are attracted to the smell of mother’s milk and may recognize the scent of their caregiver, aiding in bonding and survival.
Touch at Birth
Presence: Developed at birth.
Function: Central to the development of relationships; physical contact fosters bonding and emotional security between infants and caregivers.
Hearing at Birth
Presence: Babies can hear before birth.
Preferences:
Mother’s Voice: Preference for mother’s voice over unfamiliar voices.
Complex Sounds: Preference for complex sounds (voices and noises) vs. pure tones.
Development:
Sound Organization: Infants organize sounds into complex patterns, distinguishing human speech from non-speech sounds.
Language Sensitivity: Sensitivity to non-native language sounds decreases over time.
Vision at Birth
Focus and Acuity: Limited focus and poor visual acuity (about 20 cm).
Color Discrimination: Difficulty discriminating colors; less sensitivity to intense colors.
Development:
By 2 Months: Focus improves to near-adult level.
By 11 Months: Visual acuity approaches near-adult level.
Early Vision
Faces: Newborns show a preference for faces overall.
Contrast Sensitivity: Prefer high contrast and contour.
Movement: Attracted to movement.
Patterns: As they get older, prefer complex patterns over simple ones.
Pattern and Face Perception
Innate: Perception of faces is not innate.
Development of Face Perception:
Social Relationships: Supports infants’ earliest social interactions.
Recognition: Enables infants to recognize and respond to faces.
Visual Cliff Experiment - Depth Perception
Motion Cues: First depth cue detected (3-4 weeks).
Binocular Cues: Begin to use binocular depth cues (2-3 months) by blending images from both eyes.
Pictorial Cues: Develop pictorial depth cues (~6 months).
Movement: Independent movement enhances depth perception.
Experiment Details:
Setup: Plexiglas covers deep and shallow sides.
Behavior: Infants refuse to cross the deep side and show preference for the shallow side, demonstrating their ability to perceive depth.
Do Babies Feel Pain?
Yes!
CNS Immaturity: Babies may feel pain more intensely due to the immaturity of their central nervous system.
Pain Relief:
Breast Milk: Can provide soothing relief.
Sugar Solution: Helps reduce pain.
Comfort from Holding: Physical contact can alleviate pain.
Distraction: Engaging the baby in other activities can help manage pain.
Vision as We Age
Visual Acuity: Worsens with a sharp decline after age 70.
Corrective Lenses: Significant increase in the use of corrective lenses.
Gender Differences: More women than men are affected.
Leading Cause of Vision Loss: Macular degeneration.
Increased Risks: Higher risk for cataracts and glaucoma.
Treatment: Many conditions can be treated successfully.
Vision difficulties
Presbyopia: Harder to focus on nearby objects due to aging.
Impaired Eyesight:
Reduction in Light: Less light reaches the retina.
Lens Changes: Yellowing and thickening of the lens.
Pupil Changes: Shrinking of the pupil.
Vitreous Changes: Clouding of the vitreous body.
Light Scattering: Causes light to scatter, leading to:
Increased sensitivity to glare.
Harder to perceive color.
Harder to see in dim light.
Binocular Vision: Declines, making depth perception less reliable.
Hearing as We Age
Presbycusis: Age-related hearing loss.
Onset: Increases dramatically in old age.
Prevalence: More common than visual impairments.
Gender Differences: More men than women are affected, often linked to lifetime health behaviors.
Hearing Difficulties with Age
Neural Pathways: Decline due to degeneration.
Blood Supply: Reduced blood supply to the auditory system.
Cell Death: Loss of auditory cells.
Auditory Processing: Decline in processing of auditory signals.
Frequency Sensitivity:
Greatest decrement at high frequencies.
Detection of soft sounds diminishes across all frequencies.
Startling Noise: Reduced responsiveness to sudden, loud noises.
Taste and Smell with Age
Taste:
Sensitivity: Reduced sensitivity to sweet, salty, sour, and bitter tastes after age 60.
Cause: Decline is due to environmental factors, not just taste bud sensitivity.
Smell:
Sensitivity: Decrease in smell receptors after age 60.
Effect: Contributes to declines in sensitivity to odors.
Form Perception
Definition: Organizes sensory information into meaningful shapes and patterns.
Perceptual Set: Formed when our expectations or context influence our perception.
Figure-Ground Organization:
Figure: The prominent stimuli or object that we focus on.
Ground: The background against which the figure is perceived.
Gestalt View
Concept: The whole is more than the sum of its parts.
Underlying Principle: We naturally organize visual elements into groups or unified wholes.
Six Key Principles:
Proximity: Elements that are close together are perceived as a group.
Similarity: Similar elements are grouped together.
Continuity: We prefer to see continuous patterns rather than abrupt changes.
Closure: We tend to perceive incomplete figures as complete.
Connectedness: Elements that are visually connected are perceived as a single unit.
Figure-Ground: We differentiate between the figure (prominent stimuli) and the ground (background).
Gestalt Principles
Law of Proximity
Law of Similarity
Law of Continuity
Law of Closure
Law of Symmetry
Form and Ground
Law of Proximity
Definition: Group nearest elements together.
Example: See columns instead of rows when elements are close together
Law of Similarity
Definition: Group most similar elements together.
Example: Perceive a square of Os inside Xs rather than mixed columns.
Law of Continuity
Definition: See lines as continuous even when interrupted.
Example: Recognize an arrow piercing a heart as a single unit rather than three separate elements
Law of Closure
Definition: Fill in gaps to perceive a whole object.
Example: Complete a partially obscured shape to recognize it fully
Law of Symmetry
Definition: Group symmetrical objects arranged as wholes.
Example: Perceive symmetrical shapes as unified objects.
Form and Ground
Definition: Distinguish between the figure (prominent stimuli) and the background (ground).
Monocular Cues
Description: Use visual input from one eye.
Examples:
Relative Size: Objects that appear larger are perceived as closer.
Interposition: Objects blocking others are seen as closer.
Linear Perspective: Parallel lines appear to converge in the distance.
Texture Gradient: Texture becomes finer as distance increases.
Binocular Cues
Description: Use visual input integrated from both eyes.
Examples:
Binocular Disparity: Slight difference in images from each eye helps gauge distance.
Convergence: Eye muscles adjust to focus on close objects, providing depth information.
Three-Dimensional Perception
Organizes visual information to perceive depth and spatial relationships in three dimensions.
Perceptual Constancy
The ability to maintain a stable perception of an object despite changes in its retinal image.
Size Constancy
Perceiving an object as having a constant size regardless of changes in its distance from the observer.
Shape Constancy
Perceiving an object as having a constant shape despite changes in its orientation or angle
Color Constancy
Perceiving an object as having a consistent color despite changes in lighting conditions.
Selective attention
process of selecting one
sensory channel and
ignoring/minimizing
others
Inattentional blindness
failure to perceive a prominent object because
attention is on another task
Change blindness
failure to perceive changes in a scene when there is a
momentary interruption to views of that scene
Identification in Perception
Definition: Attaching meaning to what you perceive.
Process:
Comparison: Compare incoming sensory input to stored memory (from past experiences) to interpret and identify a stimulus.
Recognition: Most objects are identified based on their similarity to things you’ve seen before and their classification into meaningful categories stored in memory.
Perception of Symptoms
Role of Attention:
Competing Stimuli: Internal (body) and external (environmental) stimuli compete for attention.
Exciting Environments: In stimulating environments, we may pay less attention to bodily symptoms and notice them less.
Distraction: Health professionals often use distraction techniques to direct attention away from painful stimuli.
Context:
Influence on Interpretation: The context in which symptoms arise can influence their interpretation, especially for non-specific symptoms.
Top-down processing in symptom
perception - example
medical student syndrome
– Health-related anxiety while studying specific
condition > falsely believe symptoms relate to
that condition
– High stress environment >
– Overreaction to common symptoms
Outcome Expectancies
Definition: Anticipated results of a behavior.
Example: Smoking reduces your lifespan by an average of 8 years compared to non-smokers.
Personal Relevance
Definition: How a behavior change personally affects you.
Example: If you stop smoking, you will feel healthier and live longer.
Attitude
Definition: Your general outlook on life and its value.
Example: Life is good and worth living
Self-Efficacy
Definition: Your confidence in your ability to achieve a goal.
Example: You quit smoking before, and with additional support, there is no reason you can’t do it again.
Perceived Norms
Definition: Social expectations and norms surrounding a behavior.
Examples:
Success Rate: 30% of people your age have successfully quit smoking.
Social Perception: Smoking is considered antisocial.
Family Impact: Your spouse and children will appreciate it if you quit.
Parental Influence: You don’t want your children to pick up smoking.
Primary Needs
Definition: Biological necessities essential for survival.
Examples: Food, water, shelter, sleep.
Secondary Needs
Definition: Psychological desires that enhance well-being and personal fulfillment.
Examples: Social connections, achievement, self-esteem, and personal growth.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs - List
Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Love and Belongingness Needs
Esteem Needs
Self-Actualization Needs
Physiological Needs
Definition: Basic biological necessities for survival.
Examples: Food, water, shelter, sleep, and air.
Safety Needs
Definition: Protection from physical and emotional harm.
Examples: Security, stability, health, and safety.
Love and Belongingness Needs
Definition: Social relationships and connections.
Examples: Friendships, family, intimacy, and a sense of belonging.
Esteem Needs
Definition: Self-respect and respect from others.
Examples: Achievement, recognition, self-esteem, and confidence.
Self-Actualization Needs
Definition: Realizing personal potential and self-fulfillment.
Examples: Personal growth, creativity, problem-solving, and pursuing goals.
Definition of Drive
A state of arousal or discomfort triggered by physiological and/or psychological needs
Types of Drives
Primary Drives:
Definition: Directly related to survival.
Examples: Hunger, thirst, and sleep.
Secondary Drives:
Definition: Learned through conditioning or association with primary drives.
Examples: Desire for money or social status.
Drive-Reduction Theory
Concept: The primary motivation behind human behavior is to reduce drives and restore a state of balance or homeostasis.
Incentives
stimuli that motivate behaviour although they do not relate directly to biological needs
Intrinsic motivation
motivated by internal goals
i.e. doing something because it is personally rewarding to you
Extrinsic motivation
motivated by external goals
i.e. doing something because you want to earn a reward or
avoid punishment
Fluctuating Motivation
Motivation to manage health can vary, especially with chronic diseases.
Role of Health Care Providers
Support: Providers should help patients stay motivated to self-manage symptoms and prevent complications.
Understanding: It’s crucial to understand what is important to the patient.
Why Sleep?
Cellular machinery repair
* Energy replenishment
* Predator avoidance
* Thermoregulation
* Memory consolidation
* Resculpting of synapses
* Maximizing adaptation to the environment
* Brain goes offline for synaptic resetting
Synaptic Shrinkage
Purpose: Synaptic connections shrink during sleep to make room for new connections the following day.
Benefits:
Memory Management: Loss of unnecessary or insignificant memories.
Brain Cleanup: Tidying up and optimizing brain function.
Timing: This process occurs when the brain is offline during sleep.
Teenagers and Sleep
Circadian Rhythm: Teenagers naturally have a delayed sleep-wake cycle.
School Start Times: Proposal to delay start times to 8:30 AM or later.
Additional Suggestion: Begin the day with physical education.
Benefits:
Cognitive Function: Improved learning and focus.
Mental Health: Better mood and reduced stress.
Physical Health: Enhanced well-being.
Safety: Fewer accidents.
Polysomnography
Brain Electrical Activity: Monitored via sleep EEG.
Eye Movement: Recorded.
Jaw Muscle Movement: Observed.
Leg Muscle Movement: Assessed.
Airflow: Measured.
Respiratory Effort: Monitored (chest and abdominal excursion).
EKG: Electrocardiogram to record heart activity.
Oxygen Saturation: Measured.
Insomnias
-Primary insomnia
– Secondary insomnias (due
to substances,
psychiatric**, medical,
neurological condition)
– Circadian rhythm problems
– Jet lag
– Shift work Sleep Disorder
Excessive Daytime
Sleepiness
*Difficulty in maintaining
desired wakefulness
* Falling asleep at inappropriate
times
* Excessive amount of sleep
Enhancing Sleep
Enhancing Sleep
– Address underlying medical
and psychiatric condition
– Avoiding stimulating
substances ( caffeine, nicotine,
amphetamines)
– Minimizing alcohol intake
– Physical aspects of sleeping
(bed firmness, temperature,
noise, pets)
– Minimize stimulating activities
at night
Enhancing sleep
– Going to bed only when
really sleepy (yawning,
nodding off, droopy
eyelids)
– Consistent time in
getting out of bed
– Meditation, gratitude
diary, relaxation
techniques to calm the
mind
Causes of insomnia
- depression 50%
- anxiety 48%
- sleep apnea 9%
- general health 43%
- parasomnias (Sleep walk 1%, restless legs
bruxism 2% in reality about 5%
alcohol problem 8%
other substance 4%
*delayed sleep phase disorder 2%
*primary insomnia 12% - mutually exclusive of other conditions
sleep hygiene
- bed only for sleep or intimacy
- don’t watch TV or computer screen in bed
- if not asleep within 20 minutes get up
- avoid caffeine before bed time
- avoid energetic activity before bed time
- avoid naps the during the day or else before 3 pm
- make sure environment is comfortable
– quiet
– correct temperature
– comfortable bed
