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A&P II IPAP 3-17 > Test 6 Endo Adrenal Medulla, etc... Slides 187-238 > Flashcards

Test 6 Endo Adrenal Medulla, etc... Slides 187-238 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the inner region of the Adrenal Gland called?

A

Adrenal Medulla

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2
Q

What are the functional units of the adrenal medulla?

A

Chromaffin Cells

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3
Q

Chromaffin cells are modified sympathetic ganglion of the autonomic nervous system (ANS), and are formed from what?

A

Same embryonic tissue as sympathetic ganglia but lack axons

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4
Q

Chromaffin cells form clusters around what and release what?

A

Cluster around blood vessels in adrenal medulla

-Release hormones (very quickly due to control of ANS)

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5
Q

What do Chromaffin cells secrete?

A

Catecholamines

  • Epinephrine (80%)- Adrenaline
  • Norepinephrine (20%)- Noradrenaline
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6
Q

What role do Catecholamines have?

A

Intensify Sympathetic responses throughout the body

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7
Q

During what situations and how are catecholamines from Chromaffin cells stimulated for release?

A

During stress

1) Impulses from hypothalamus stimulate sympathetic preganglionic neurons
2) Which stimulate Chromaffin cells to release catecholamines

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8
Q

Catechaolamines are responsible for causing what effects throughout the body?

A
  • Increase heart rate, force of contraction, output of heart, BP
  • Increases blood flow to heart, liver, skeletal muscles
  • Dilates airways to lungs
  • Increases blood glucose and fatty acids
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9
Q

This is usually caused by a benign tumor of the chromaffin cells, arises in adrenal medulla (Most often) but can arise anywhere along sympathetic paraganglia?

A

Pheochromocytoma

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10
Q

Pheochromocytoma increases production and secretion of what?

A

Epinephrine

Norepinephrine

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11
Q

The increased epinephrine and norephinephrine caused by pheochromocytoma causes what?

A

Prolonged “Fight or Flight” response in the body

  • Increased BP, HR
  • Elevated Basal Metabolic Rate
  • Hyperglycemia
  • Nervousness
  • Sweating
  • Headache
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12
Q

What controls the release of hormones Glucagon and Insulin from the Pancreas?

A

Glucagon:
-Stimulated: low blood glucose, exercise, and protein meals
-Inhibited: Somatostatin (GHIH) and insulin
(Concentration based)
Insulin:
-Stimulated: Increase blood glucose, acetylcholine, arginine and leucine (AA), glucagon, GIP, hGH, ACTH
-Inhibited: Somatostatin (GHIH)

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13
Q

What will inhibit Somatostatin (GHIH) secretion?

A

Pancreatic Polypeptide

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14
Q

What stimulates and inhibits Pancreatic Polypeptide?

A
  • Stimulated: Protein meals, fasting, exercise, acute hypoglycemia
  • Inhibited: Somatostatin (GHIH)
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15
Q

Which organ is a flattened organ located in the curve of the duodenum, 5-6 inch in length, w/head, body, and tail, and is both an endocrine gland and exocrine gland?

A

Pancreas
Endocrine: secrete hormones, directly to blood, faster
Exocrine: Secrete enzymes, directly to SOA, slower

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16
Q

The pancreas is 95% exocrine cells arranged in what way?

A

Acini: clusters of exocrine cells that produce digestive enzymes

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17
Q

Where do the Endocrine cells of the pancreas lie and what are they called?

A

Middle of the acini (1-2 million endocrine cells)

Called: Pancreatic islets (Islets of Langerhans)

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18
Q

What are the 4 types of islet cells in the pancreas?

A

Alpha (A) Cells: 17%- secrete Glucagon
Beta (B) Cells- 70%- secrete Insulin
Delta (D) Cells- 7%- secrete somatostatin (GHIH)
F Cells- 6%- secrete pancreatic polypeptide

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19
Q

What are the functions of the pancreatic hormones, Glucagon and Insulin?

A

Glucagon: Raises blood glucose levels
Insulin: Lowers blood glucose levels

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20
Q

What is the function of Somatostatin?

A
  • Paracrine function: inhibiting both insulin and glucagon release
  • Endocrine function: inhibit release of hGH
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21
Q

What is the function of Pancreatic Polypeptide?

A

Inhibits:
Somatostatin release
Gallbladder contraction
Secretion of digestive enzymes by pancreas

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22
Q

What occurs in a hypoglycemic state to bring blood glucose levels up?

A

1) Alpha cells release glucagon and Beta cells are inhibited from releasing insulin
2) Glucagon acts on hepatocytes
-Accelerated conversion of glycogen into glucose
(Glycogenolysis)
-Promotes formation of glucose from lactic acid and AA
(Gluconeogenesis)
3) Hepatocytes release glucose into blood stream

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23
Q

What occurs in a hyperglycemic state to bring blood glucose level down?

A

1) Beta cells release insulin and alpha cells are inhibited from releasing glucagon
2) Insulin acts on cells throughout the body to:
-Facilitates diffusion of glucose into cells
-Speeds conversion of glucose into glycogen (glycogenesis)
-Increases uptake of AA to increase protein synthesis
-Speeds synthesis of FA (lipogenesis)
-Slows conversion of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis)
-Slows formation of glucose from lactic acid and AA
(Gluconeogenesis)
3) Blood glucose levels fall

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24
Q

What is the most important regulator of release of glucagon and insulin?

A

Blood glucose levels

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25
Q

What hormones stimulate release of insulin indirectly because they both elevate blood glucose levels?

A

hGH

ACTH

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26
Q

Acetylcholine (neurotransmitter) liberated from axon terminals of parasympathetic vagus nerve fibers that innervate the pancreatic islets cells stimulate what?

A

Insulin

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27
Q

What affect do the AA arginine and leucine present in the blood after a protein containing meal have on insulin?

A

Stimulate Insulin

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28
Q

This is released in the small intestine in response to glucose presence?

A

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)

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29
Q

Glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide has what effect on insulin?

A

stimulate Insulin

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30
Q

Increased activity of the sympathetic division of the ANS (i.e. exercise) and a rise in AA due to a meal containing mainly protein will stimulate what to be released?

A

Glucagon

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31
Q

What is required for growth because they have a synergistic effect?

A

hGH and Insulin

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32
Q

If a defect occurs in hGH or insulin secretion during development what may occur?

A

Growth can be stunted or stopped

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33
Q

What is the 4th leading cause of death in the US and results from the inability to produce or use insulin (B-cell destruction)?

A

Diabetes Mellitus

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34
Q

What are the three Poly’s that characterized Diabetes Mellitus?

A

Polyuria: Excessive urine production
Polydipsia: excessive thirst
Poylphagia: excessive eating

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35
Q

What type of Diabetes Mellitus is caused by auto-immune response that attacks beta cells (80-90% destruction before symptoms show), pancreas is unable to produce little to no insulin, Levels of blood glucose fasting >126 and random >200?

A

Type 1 Diabetes (used to called Insulin Dependent diabetes mellitus)

36
Q

When does Type I Diabetes Mellitus develop and what are some sign/symptoms?

A

Early in life (under 20)

-Polyuria, polydipsia, weight loss, weakness, Can initially present in DKA

37
Q

How is Diabetes Type I cellular metabolism similar to a starving person?

A
  • No Insulin: no entry of glucose into cells
  • Cells use FA for ATP
  • Triglycerides in adipose tissue catabolized for FA
  • FA broken down yield Ketone by-product (Accumulate causing decrease in blood pH (ketoacidosis))
  • Wt. loss
  • lipid deposits left on vasculature walls
38
Q

What conditions/disease may arise from the mobilization of cholesterol stores and lipid deposits that are left on the vessel walls?

A
  • Atherosclerosis
  • Cerebrovascular Insufficiency
  • Ischemic Heart Disease
  • Peripheral Vascular Disease
  • Cataracts
  • Kidney Failure
39
Q

What is the typical treatment for Diabetes Type I?

A

-Blood Glucose Monitoring (7-8x’s/day)
-Meals 45-50% carb
-Meals less 30% fat
-Exercise
-Insulin injections (up to 3x’s/day)
(Pancreatic transplant, Transplantation of islet cells only)

40
Q

What form of Diabetes is more common than Type I but is not an issue of insulin but rather target cells have less receptors which causes increased blood glucose and increased insulin levels?

A

Diabetes Type 2

41
Q

What age group does Diabetes Type 2 typically occur in and what recent change to this has been seen?

A

Obese over age 35
Recently:
-Spike in children and teenagers

42
Q

What are the symptoms associated w/ Diabetes Type 2?

A

Mild to none

-Typically found with fasting glucose/random glucose

43
Q

How is Diabetes Type 2 controlled?

A

Diet
Exercise
Weight Loss
-Sometimes medication for refractory cases

44
Q

What occurs when a diabetic injects too much insulin, which in turn causes hypoglycemia?

A

Hyperinsulinism

45
Q

Hypoglycemia causes secretion of what which in turn causes what symptoms?

A
  • Epinephrine, glucagon, hGH
  • Symptoms: Anxiety, Sweating, Tremor, Tachycardia, Hunger, Weakness
  • Without Glucose: Mental Disorientation, convulsions, unconsciousness, shock, death
46
Q

What hormones do the Ovaries produce?

A

Estrogen
Progesterone
Inhibin
Relaxin

47
Q

What hormones regulate the menstrual cycle, maintain pregnancy, and prepare the mammary glands for lactation?

A

Estrogen
Progesterone
LH (From Ant Pituitary)
FSH (From Ant Pituitary)

48
Q

What hormone is used to inhibit FSH?

49
Q

What hormone is only produced in large quantities when pregnancy occurs

50
Q

The hormone Relaxin is produced by what and what effect does it have?

A

Produced: Ovaries and Placenta
Effect: Relax cartilage of pubic symphysis for passage of baby and help relax cervix

51
Q

What hormones are produced by the Testes?

A

Testosterone

Inhibin

52
Q

What does Testosterone Stimulate?

A
  • Decent of testes before birth
  • Regulates sperm production
  • Regulates male secondary sex characteristics
53
Q

What effect does Inhibin have?

A

Inhibits FSH

54
Q

What gland is attached to the roof of the third ventricle of the brain, covered by capsule formed by pia mater, and consists of masses of neuroglia and secretory cells?

A

Pineal Gland

55
Q

What are the masses of neuroglia and secretory cells of the Pineal Gland called?

A

Pinealocytes

56
Q

What does the Pineal Gland secrete?

57
Q

What affect does Melatonin have and when is it secreted?

A
  • Contribute to body’s biological clock

- More secreted at night to promote sleepiness

58
Q

What type of disorder occurs in places where there is an increase of darkness which causes increased melatonin? What is the treatment?

A

Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)

-Bright Light therapy 3-6 hrs/day

59
Q

What gland is located behind the sternum, between the lungs?

60
Q

What is produced by the Thymus during childhood?

A
  • Thymosin
  • Thymic Humoral Factor
  • Thymic Factor
  • Thymopoietin
61
Q

What is significant of the hormones produced by the Thymus and timeframe of production?

A

Promote maturation of T-cells

-All T-cells for life produced by puberty

62
Q

What are the two families of eicosanoid hormones?

A
  • Prostaglandins (PG)

- Leukotrienes (LT)

63
Q

What affect do Prostaglandins (PG) have on the body?

A

Alter:

  • Smooth Muscle Contraction
  • Glandular Secretions
  • Blood Flow
  • Reproductive Processes
  • Platelet Function
  • Respiration
  • Nerve Impulse Transmission
  • Lipid Metabolism
  • Immune Responses
64
Q

What affect do Leukotrienes (LT) have on the body?

A

Stimulates chemotaxis of WBC’s and mediates inflammation

65
Q

Where are Eicosanoid Hormones found?

A
  • All cells in the body

- EXCEPT RBC’s

66
Q

Eicosanoid Hormones act as what type of hormones in response to chemical or mechanical stimuli?

A

Local

Paracrine and Autocrine

67
Q

How long do Eicosanoid Hormones last within the blood?

A

Briefly due to rapid inactivation

68
Q

What is good stress called?

69
Q

What is “harmful” stress called?

70
Q

What is defined by: any stimulus that produces a stress response?

71
Q

The stress response is also called?

A

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)

-Controlled from Hypothalamus

72
Q

What are the three stages of the Stress Response?

A

1) Initial Fight-or-Flight
2) Resistance Reaction
3) Exhaustion Response

73
Q

In stage one, Initial Fight-or-Flight, of the stress response, what is occurring?

A

1) Initiated by nerve impulses from hypothalamus to SNS
-Glucose and Oxygen mobilize to vital organs
-Non-essential body function are inhibited
(reduced blood to kidney initiates the RAA pathway=fluid retention=in case of dehydration or bleeding

74
Q

What initiates the Resistance Reaction?

A

Hypothalamic hormones

-CRH, gHRH, TRH

75
Q

What purpose does this longer lasting response of resistance reaction serve?

A

Helps continue to fight stressor even after removal

76
Q

To reach stage 3 of the stress response, The exhaustion response what occurs?

A

-If stressor is not removed or resistance reaction was not sufficient body will move into exhaustion stage

77
Q

The Exhaustion Response of stage 3 has what effect within the body?

A
  • Prolonged exposure to cortisol and other hormones
  • Causes muscle wasting, suppression of immune system, ulceration of gastric tissues, and failure of pancreatic beta cells
78
Q

What diseases may arise due to the inhibition of the immune system due to the Exhaustion Response?

A 
Gastritis
Ulcerative Colitis
Irritable Bowel
Hypertension
Asthma
Rheumatoid Arthritis
Migraines
Anxiety
Depression
79
Q

As we age hGH production is reduced causing what?

A

Muscle Atrophy

80
Q

As we age the reduced production of T3/T4 causes what?

A

Reduction in metabolism leading to increase in body fat and hypothyroidism
(TSH increases due to lack of Negative Feedback)

81
Q

Aging Endocrine what might result due to decreased dietary calcium intake?

A

Increased PTH levels

Calcitriol and Calcitonin levels reduced leading to bone injury

82
Q

What occurs to the adrenal glands as we age although the adrenal medulla is usually unaffected?

A

Becomes Fibrous leading to decreased cortisol and aldosterone

83
Q

How does age affect the pancreas?

A

Insulin release is slower and receptor sensitivity to glucose declines
(Glucose levels raise faster and return to normal slower)

84
Q

Aging Ovaries change in what way?

A

Decrease in size and stop responding to gonadotropins

  • Decreased Estrogen, leads to osteoporosis, hyperlipidemia, atherosclerosis
  • Leads to menopause
85
Q

Aging Testes change in what way?

A

-Decrease size still produce testosterone
-Decrease Test usually not issue until late life
-Sperm amount same
(Morphologically abnormal and Motility decrease)

A&P II IPAP 3-17 (12 decks)

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