Test 4 Flashcards
Memorize by Final Exam 12/11
Municipal Waste
Combination of household and commercial waste
Has increased over time
What trends can we see with waste in the US?
Mainly comes from food, paper, and cardboard
Mainly disposed of in landfills (50%), unlike other countries who mainly incinerate and recycle
What trends can we see with waste worldwide between countries of different incomes?
High income: produces more waste and more paper
Low/middle income: produces mostly organic waste
What is the Waste Management Hierarchy?
A way of determining the most preferred ways to deal with waste (reduce, reuse, recycle, compost) and the lesser/least preferred ways (energy recovery from incineration, treatment + disposal)
Landfills
Priority is to keep things contained by compacting the trash and covering it with dirt to discourage smells, pests, wind-blown litter, etc.
Incinerators
Burning waste to minimize the space it takes up in landfills
Energy in the form of heat and steam can be harnessed
Recycling
Reprocessing discarded material into new, useful products to prevent it from ending up in a landfill
Better for the environment
What are some of the problems we see with plastic recycling?
Different kinds need to be separated because they won’t melt together
Downcycling (recycled plastic generally can’t be recycled again)
Undesirable for companies: making new plastic is cheaper + recycled plastic is less durable
What percent of plastic waste in the US is recycled?
5%
Wish-Cycling
Throwing things in the recycle (even if you don’t know if they can be recycled) and hoping for the best
E-Waste
Waste from electronics like computers, phones, TVs, and batteries
Contains a lot of toxic materials such as mercury and lead, which can contaminate soil and groundwater if left in landfills
What did the US previously do with its e-waste and plastics? What’s happening to it now?
Shipped it to China
China banned trash imports including e-waste and plastics
Now this trash burden falls onto other nations such as India and Thailand
Composting
Type of recycling that converts organic waste to soil-enriching organic fertilizer
Anaerobic Digesters
Captures methane being released by livestock manure, sewage, and other organic waste and producing energy from it
What are the benefits of anaerobic digesters?
Reduces food waste in landfills + methane that ends up in the atmosphere
Economically beneficial to farmers, grocery stores, and energy consumers
Hazardous Waste
Any discarded material (liquid or solid) that contains substances known to be fatal, toxic, carcinogenic, ignitable/explosive, corrosive, or highly reactive
Love Canal
Area that used to be an industrial waste dump for an electrical company and was later turned into a suburb
People started getting sick
They discovered that the company had been dumping hazardous waste that contaminated the soil and groundwater
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA)
Requires industries using hazardous chemicals to track them from “cradle to grave”
Makes them responsible for the chemicals they’re using and how they dispose of them
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA)
Tracks/identifies abandoned hazardous waste dumps
Comes up with plans to clean them
Compensates people for cleaning them + holds companies liable for it
EPA has access to a “superfund” to help pay for these cleanups
Phytoremediation
Type of bioremediation that uses plants to clean up toxic waste
Exs:
- Sunflowers near Chernobyl
- Bracken fern to absorb arsenic
- Genetically modified poplars (trees) that extract mercury from the soil and convert it to a less toxic form
What percentage of the world lives in cities?
56% = about 4.4 billion people
Prediction that this number with continue to grow to about 2/3
What is a city?
An urban area with more than 2,500 residents
Areas that deal with commerce, manufacturing, government, the exchange of ideas, etc.
What causes urban growth?
Natural population increases due to better sanitation, healthcare, etc.
Increased migration to cities due to both push and pull factors
What are some push factors that encourage people to move out of rural areas?
Climate change and mechanization affecting agricultural production
Fewer jobs
Social and political conflict (persecution and forced displacement)
Less affordable housing
What are some pull factors that encourage people to move to cities?
More cultural activities and entertainment
Public transportation = no car to pay for
More job opportunities
More social services
Better access to food, healthcare, and affordable housing
What are some problems with cities and rapid urban growth?
Air pollution
Inadequate wastewater treatment
Water shortages
Rising sea levels + more severe storms + sinking grounds = problems for coastal cities
Informal settlements (aka slums) have decreased access to food, electricity, healthcare, etc.
Urban Sprawl
The outward extension of a city’s boundaries, causing lower population density
Migration to suburbia to avoid the negative effects of urban growth
What are some problems associated with urban sprawl?
Taking open space away from recreation and agriculture
Cars are required to move around = pollution + traffic congestion
Decay in central cities
Smart Growth
Strategies for well-planned developments that make efficient and effective use of land resources and existing infrastructure
Offers the benefits of walking, social contact, natural surroundings, physical exercise, and mental respite
What are some examples of smart growth strategies?
Mixed-use areas
More greenery/green areas for recreation, exercise, water conservation, air quality, natural beauty, open space, farmland, etc.
Centralized areas for shopping and entertainment that are close to residential communities
Walkable neighborhoods
More public transportation
Conservation Development
(AKA Cluster Development or Open-space Zoning)
Developers preserve at least half of an area as natural, open space
Can be achieved by clustering houses closer together (giving people smaller yards) to preserve larger pieces of land
Can also add trails and encourage community development
Economics
A social science that deals with the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services to satisfy people’s needs and wants
What influences economics decisions?
Supply (amount available) and Demand (amount desired), which both influence market value
What are the 3 main types of capital used to produce goods and services?
Natural: resources/ecosystem services that support life
Human: physical/mental abilities, knowledge, and talents that people hold
Built/Manufactured: infrastructure like tools, buildings, and factories
Neoclassical Economics
Views the earth’s natural capital as a part of the human economic system
Thinks that economic growth is unlimited because we can always find substitutes
Ecological Economics
The view that there are no substitutes for many natural resources such as clean water/air, fertile land, and biodiversity, meaning that constant economic growth in unsustainable
What did Constanza estimate the monetary value of natural capital to be?
At least $125 trillion per year
Existence Value
Type of nonuse value
Valuing something simply because it exists and we like knowing that it exists
Aesthetic Value
Type of nonuse value
Valuing something like a forest or a species for its beauty
Why turn natural capital into monetary values?
Assists in the creation and implementation of certain policies (by helping with the cost-benefit analysis process)
“Numbers are the universal language” - helps people understand the importance of ecological services
What are some drawbacks to turning natural capital into monetary values?
It’s difficult to come to a common consensus (it’s subjective)
It’s hard to define clean water/air in terms of money
Market Pricing
The direct price, including the cost of raw materials, labor, shipping, and markups from sellers
This does not include the environmental cost of waste, pollution, and land destruction
Full Pricing
Essentially a carbon tax in which the cost of an item reflects the impacts that it has on the environment and society
This discourages people from using environmentally damaging products
What are some other economic tools we can use to address environmental problems?
Carbon taxes, emissions trading, environmental indicators, the environmental performance index, and green business
GDP
The annual market value of all goods and services produced by all firms operating within the bounds of a country within a year
Often used as an indicator of economic growth and well-being
Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI)
GDP + beneficial transactions (volunteer work + housework) minus harmful environmental effects (pollution, crime, resource depletion)
Environmental Performance Index
Ranks each country based on its ecosystem services, air quality, agricultural land, etc.
Social Responsibility in Green Business
Companies need to be transparent with what they’re doing to avoid greenwashing
Policies vs Politics
The laws and regulations enacted and enforced by the government
VS
The process by which individuals or groups influence/control the creation of policies (via the actions of all levels of gov’t)
What is the policy lifecycle?
Begins with recognition of a problem, followed by research, policy formation, voting/approval, budgeting decisions, implementation, monitoring success, and potential policy readjustment
How does the media influence the policy lifecycle? What’s an example?
It plays a big role in bringing problems to the public’s attention, such as river fires caused by water pollution (ex: Cuyahoga River Fire in Cleveland 1969) leading to advocacy for the Clean Water Act
In general, how are policies made?
Starts in one chamber (either House or Senate)
Gets referred to and discussed by a relevant committee
Sent back to original chamber to be voted on (majority needed)
Gets sent to other chamber + same committee process repeats
Gets sent to president to be passed
Vetoes can be overridden by 2/3 majority in the legislative branch
What is the Legislative Branch? What role does it play in policy making?
Made up of House of Representatives and the Senate
Passes the laws
What is the Executive Branch? What role does it play in policy making?
Includes President, Vice President, and President’s Cabinet
Responsible for the enforcement of the laws through gov’t agencies (which set regulations that put laws into effect)
Who appoints the leaders of gov’t agencies such as the EPA, FDA, and USDA?
The president
What is the Judicial Branch? What role does it play in policy making?
Includes the Supreme Court and lower federal courts
Interprets the meanings of laws and determines if they’re constitutional
Who approves the funding for government programs?
Congress and the President
What does the end of Chevron Deference mean for the courts?
Courts have more power while the executive branch has less
Essentially said that agencies don’t have the expertise to be granted deference, giving courts more power when interpreting ambiguity in laws (or requiring Congress to use more exact language)
What is “standing” in a legal case?
The right to take part in the legal proceedings (litigants must show that they are personally affected by the case)
Sierra Club v. Morton (1969)
The Sierra Club challenged the decision of the Forest Service to lease land in Sequoia National Park to Disney for a ski resort
Ruled that Sierra Club didn’t have standing
Disney still backed out due to public attention and backlash
What were the arguments presented in the Held v. Montana case?
Group of teens in Montana argued that the state was violating its constitution by approving fossil fuel projects that damaged the environment
The state counter-argued that climate change is a global problem and shouldn’t just be their responsibility
In the Held v. Montana case, what constitutional right did the kids think was being violated? Why was this a big deal?
“The right to clean, healthful environments”
Other states had similar language, meaning the result of this case would set a precedent
What was the ruling in Held v. Montana?
In favor of the plaintiffs
Overruled the statement that states shouldn’t consider greenhouse gas emissions when approving projects
How is the executive branch involved in policy making?
Executive orders can expand national parks and protected areas, as well as establish national monuments
Regulatory Agencies such as the Department of the Interior (including Fish+Wildlife Service)
What is the history of the first Earth day?
April 22nd, 1970
Originated on a college campus with informal lectures about various types of pollution
Led to demonstrations throughout the country
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA)
Oversees federal agencies by requiring them to complete an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) before partaking in any development project
Very detailed and time-consuming
Must be made public
Can be sued if they think it wasn’t done properly
What must an EIS include?
Purpose of the project
Environmental impact (both positive and negative)
Alternatives
What is the downside to an EIS?
It’s a Procedural Law, meaning it does not require the agencies to pick the least harmful option
What are some examples of other environmental organizations?
World Wildlife Fund
The Sierra Club
Audubon Society (protects birds)
Natural Resources Defense Council
National Environmental Education Act (1990)
Called for greater environmental literacy by:
- improving the understanding of environmental studies
- encouraging students to pursue careers in the field
Environmental Literacy
Being fluent in the principles of ecology to better understand the language of environmental wisdom
Aims to establish a stewardship ethic or sense of responsibility to care for the environment
What is a key feature of developing environmental literacy (besides education)? What are its benefits?
Being in and experiencing nature:
- develops a sense of place that makes us want to care for nature
- reduces stress, anxiety, and mental fatigue
- improves attention span, short term memory, and creativity
What does Richard Louv say in his book “Last Child in the Woods”?
That a lack of contact with nature can intensify feels of anxiety, depression, and ADHD
He calls this “Nature-deficit disorder”
What is Citizen Science? What are some examples?
Having regular citizens get interested and involved in collecting scientific data
Exs:
eBird to encourage birding and track migratory patterns
NY iMapInvasives to track invasive species in the state
What are some benefits and drawbacks of citizen science programs? What are some potential solutions to the drawback?
Pros:
- leads to larger collection of data
- raises awareness on issues
- makes people more aware of the scientific process
Con: citizens may not be as knowledgeable about certain topics as scientists
Solutions: short training programs and data checkers
Conspicuous Consumerism
Buying things we don’t want or need just to impress others
Affluenza
The drive to possess “stuff”
Carbon Footprint
The amount of CO2 generated by an individual, organization, country, or other entity
What are the different categories calculated by the WWF’s carbon footprint questionnaire?
Home, Food, Travel, and Stuff
What can we do as individuals to help with environmental issues?
Purchase less/mindfully, reduce excess packaging, avoid disposable items, conserve energy/water, vote in federal + local elections
