Test 3 Flashcards
Memorize by Fri 11/15
Geology
The study of dynamic processes taking place on the earth’s surface and in its interior
What are the 3 major concentric zones of the earth?
Core: innermost, hot, iron+nickel
Mantel: slightly less dense, semi-liquid magma
Crust: complex mineral composition
What are the two kinds of earth crust?
Continental = land
Oceanic = ocean, thinner, 71% of crust
Minerals
Naturally occurring chemical element or inorganic compound that exists as a crystalline solid
Rocks
Solid combination of one or more minerals
Sedimentary Rock
Made of sediments (pieces of weathered rock) that accumulates in layers
Metamorphic Rock
Rock that has been transformed by exposure to high temperatures, pressure, and/or fluid
Igneous Rock
Magma that has been put under extreme pressure and heat, then cooled and crystallized
Divergent plate boundary
Plates move away from each other
Convergent plate boundary
Plates move towards each other
Transform plate boundary
Plates move parallel to each other, but in opposite directions
Ore
A deposit of rock that contains profitable concentrations of a mineral
What makes ore high or low grade? Which one is more sustainable to mine for?
The concentration of the particular mineral in it
Mining for high = more sustainable
Mining for low = occurs when things are scarce
Rare Earth Minerals
Essential to the creation of technology like phones, batteries, and computers
What country dominates the processing of rare earth minerals? Why?
China: processing these minerals produces radioactive waste that other countries don’t want to deal with
Fossil Fuels
When an accumulation of organic matter is transformed into coal, oil, natural gas, etc. through heat and pressure over a long period of time
What are the different kinds of surface mining?
Strip mining: removing shallow deposits in horizontal beds
Open-pit mining: digging large pits
Mountaintop Removal: using explosives to remove the tops of mountains, exposing mineral deposits
Subsurface mining
Going underneath the ground to get at particular resources
Tailings
Leftovers from the mining and processing of ores
Excess rock and vegetation from digging up the ground
Chemical leftovers from processing
What are the environmental effects of mining?
Tailings can become pollutants
Heat and chemicals used in processing can lead to air and water pollution
Ivory Coast: waste going into ground; use of mercury
What are the human health effects of mining?
Air pollution = breathing problems
Dangerous for miners: accidents, blank lung
Ivory Coast: use of mercury; open shafts
What can be done about the negative effects of mining?
Recycling tech like car batteries, using less, finding substitutes, trying to do without, biomining
What is biomining?
Using living things to mine
Ex: bacteria can be used to collect salt from salt water
Volcanoes
Magma rises through the crust and erupts/seeps out of cracks in the surface
Releases lava and ash, leading to damage and air pollution
Ex: Mt. Vesuvius destroyed Pompeii
Earthquakes
The breakage and shifting of rocks at a fault line or fracture in the crust
Ex: largest recorded - Chile 1960 (rating of 9.5)
Focus vs Magnitude (earthquakes)
Origin of the quake
VS
Severity or size of the quake, measured by the amount of energy that’s released (Richter Scale)
Tsunamis
Earthquakes under the ocean cause the floor to rise and fall, leading to a series of huge waves
Ex: Indian Ocean 2004 (magnitude 9.2) killed over 200,000 people
Ex2: Japan 2011 killed 19,000 people and damaged nuclear reactors
Glaciers
Sheets of ice formed from compressed snow packs, that can leave behind distinct landforms when melted
What landforms are left behind when glaciers melt?
Moraines and Drumlins (mounded hills)
Kettle Lakes (bodies of water)
Atmosphere
Thin blanket of air surrounding the earth, composed of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen
Troposphere
Layer of the atmosphere that’s closest to the earth’s surface (the part that we breathe and where weather occurs)
Stratosphere
Layer of the atmosphere that contains the Ozone layer
Next closest to the earth besides the troposphere
Ozone layer
Protective layer of ozone that blocks 95% of harmful UV radiation
Success story: international environmental policies to stop its depletion
Greenhouse Gasses
Trap heat in the atmosphere like a blanket (exs: carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, water vapor, methane)
Industrialization and burning of fossil fuels has increased the amount of these gasses in the atmosphere, leading to overheating
Carbon dioxide
Predominately emitted by industry, construction, electricity, and heating systems, which are fueled by the burning of coal, oil, and natural gas
Methane
Predominantly emitted by agriculture, CAFOS, and fugitive emissions (unintentional releases of methane through the transport and processing of fossil fuels)
Albedo Effect
Light surfaces reflect more sunlight than dark surfaces
Urban heat island effect
Urbanized areas experience higher temperatures than outlying areas due to dark surfaces like pavement, roads, and rooftops (albedo effect at play)
How does ice relate to the albedo effect and global warming?
Ice reflects a lot of light
Rising temps due to climate change = melting glaciers = reduced albedo effect = more warming
What are some solutions to the urban heat island effect?
White rooftops, green roofs, planting more trees/greenery, more light surfaces
What are some ways that we measure/track climate change?
Looking at temperatures, ice cores, annual tree rings, and CO2 levels
Ice cores
Every time it snows, small amounts of air get trapped inside
When layers of snow accumulate and get compressed into ice, the air forms tiny bubbles
These bubbles serve as tiny samples of the atmosphere at the time
Annual tree rings
The number of rings on a tree tells you how old it is
The width of each ring tells you how much growth occurred that year
The amount of growth tells us what the weather/climate conditions were like
IPCC
Panel that looks at scientific evidence about climate change and reports its findings every few years
They say we need to keep our global temperature change below 1.5 to 2 degrees
What are the effects of climate change?
Increasing temps, glacier retreats, sea ice reduction, sea level rise (concerns about flooding)
Models show us that these changes are caused by humans
Paris Climate Agreement
The countries that sign on are expected to lower their greenhouse gas emissions with the goal of keeping global temp change below 2 degrees
COP 28
Agreement between nearly 200 countries to move away from fossil fuels
Established the “loss-and-damage fund”, in which countries that contribute more to climate change give money to smaller ones (that contribute less but are often affected more)
What are some potential solutions to climate change?
Clean energy tax credits, EPA regulations on power plants, auto industry regulations, carbon taxes, carbon cap and trade, geoengineering
Clean energy tax credits
Gov’t pays people to switch over to renewable/clean energy
EPA regulations on power plants + Auto industry regulations
Limits on how much carbon can be emitted from power plants and car tailpipes
Carbon tax
Taxing people based off of how much carbon they emit
Cap and Trade
Limiting the amount of carbon or other greenhouse gasses that can be emitted by the nation in a year, then distributing that time among industries and plants
Those that use less than their allotted emissions can sell it to someone else
Geoengineering
Spraying seawater to form clouds
Using mirrors in space to reflect sunlight/UV rays
Air Quality
Based off the presence of certain chemicals in the atmosphere
Low = concentration high enough to alter the ecosystem and harm flora/fauna
Natural vs Human sources of air pollution/low air quality
Natural = wind blow dust, volcanic eruptions, and wildfires
Human = power plants, factories, cars
Primary vs Secondary Pollutants
Released directly from the source into the air in a harmful form (ex: carbon monoxide, particulate matter, nitrogen oxide)
Vs
Converted into a hazardous form after entering the atmosphere and reacting chemically with other components of the air (ex: ozone, sulfuric acid)
Clean Air Act (1970)
Sets limits on pollutants
6 major ones: particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, ozone, and lead
Sulfur Dioxide
Colorless, odorless, corrosive
Comes from coal, oil, and smelting of sulfur containing ores
What does sulfur dioxide form when it reacts with water?
Sulfuric acid
Leads to acid rain
Can destroy plants, kill wildlife, and degrade buildings
Nitrogen Oxides
Highly reactive gasses formed when nitrogen is heated to high temps in the presence of oxygen
Reddish brown, gives smog its color
Comes from transportation and nitrogen fertilizer
What does nitrogen oxide create when it reacts with water
Nitric acid
Also leads to acid rain
Cap and trade has been used to combat this (significant decrease after 1986)
Carbon Monoxide
Colorless, odorless, highly toxic
Comes from incomplete fuel combustion and wildfires
Can block oxygen uptake in the blood
Particulate Matter
Solid particles such as dust, soot, smoke, pollen, and lint suspended in the air
Comes from wildfires
Reduces visibility and damages lungs
Ozone
Is beneficial when in the stratosphere (ozone layer)
At the ground level, it can cause breathing problems and harm plants
Lead
Toxic to the nervous system and affects brain development
Comes from industrial and mining processes
Indoor pollution
Smoke from wood or charcoal fires (more prevalent in lower income nations)
Cigarette smoke
Chemical cleaning products
What are the effects of air pollution?
Poor visibility, asthma, chronic bronchitis (persistent inflammation of airways), and emphysema (permanent constriction of airways)
Ex: Delhi, India
Dilution is the solution to pollution
Old saying that meant that the pollutants emitted by factories will be dispersed and diluted
THIS IS NOT HOW IT WORKS
What are some potential solutions to air pollution?
Filtration systems in homes and power plants, plants, transitioning to cleaner energy, monitoring policies, clean air legislation (emission controls; cap and trade)
Ex: Delhi, India also delayed flights and construction + reduced traffic
What percentage of water on earth is freshwater?
3% - mostly trapped in ice and glaciers
What are the two main processes in the hydrologic cycle?
Evaporation - liquid water to water vapor
Precipitation - clouds to rain, snow sleet, hail, etc.
Infiltration
Water seeping into the soil, nourishing plants and eventually becoming groundwater (if it seeps low enough)
Surface Runoff
Water moving down slopes to lower elevations and into rivers, streams, lakes, and oceans
How do humans affect the hydrologic cycle?
Diverting water from rivers, reservoirs lead to more evaporation, sewage/pesticide pollution, pumping water out of the ground faster than it can replenish, land use development, climate change = more severe storms
Rain Shadow Effect
Prevailing winds pick up moisture from a body of water, distributing it on one side of a mountain as it rises, then creating an arid region on the opposite side of the mountain when it sinks back down
Windward side vs Leeward side (mountains)
The side with lots of precipitation and lush, green vegetation
VS
The side with little precipitation and less plant growth
Wetlands
Areas where water is covering the soil either all year round or for varying parts of the year (permanently or seasonally saturated soil)
This gives rise to specific plant life (hydrophytes)
Hydrophytes
Plants that are adapted to live in the water (ex: cattails)
Why are wetlands important?
Biodiversity, recreation, flood management, filtering pollutants, storing nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorus
Zone of Aeration
Upper layer of soil where water and air are stored
Where plants get their moisture and nutrients from
Zone of Saturation
Holds all the groundwater
Top of it is called the water table
Aquifier
Porous layers of sand, gravel, or rock below the water table that serve as natural reservoirs for groundwater
What are some challenges we’re facing with groundwater?
Pumping too much = lowering water tables (ex: Ogallala) = salt water intrusion and sinking ground
Why is Utah’s Great Salt Lake drying up?
Diverting rivers for drinking water and agriculture use, less snow packing and precipitation, higher evaporation rates (climate change), growing populations without resources to support them
Why should we care about the Great Salt Lake drying up?
Affects the food chain
Toxic metals are contained in the soil beneath the lake, so if the lake dries up, these substances will be exposed and distributed by wind, becoming a human health concern
What can be done about the drying up of the Great Salt Lake?
Residential, voluntary changes in water use
Mandatory limits on water use
Looking to other sources of water
What sector uses the most water?
Agriculture and livestock
Also production of products such as chocolate
What are some ways that water can be conserved?
Cloud seeding, desalination plants, taking advantage of reclaimed water (treating used water and reusing it), adding natural landscapes and greenery to cities to decrease runoff
Cloud seeding
Forcing clouds to produce precipitation (kind of geoengineering)
Desalination Plants
Plants/factories that turn saltwater into freshwater
Uses a lot of energy
Water Pollution
Any physical, biological, or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses
Point source
Water pollution discharges from one, easily identifiable source such as a factory, treatment plant, coal mine, etc.
Nonpoint source
Water pollution that’s more scattered or diffused, without any easily identified source
Ex: agricultural and livestock runoff
What sorts of water pollutants can causes health problems?
Acids, salts, metals, pesticides, oil, bacteria, viruses, parasites
Where does most sickness and disease in low income countries come from?
Waterborne infectious agents and inadequate sanitation
What sorts of water pollutants can cause ecosystem disruption?
Sediments, heat (from industrial cooling), and excess nitrogen/phosphorus
Dead Zone
Caused by eutrophication
Excess nutrients = algae overgrowth = decomposition of plant material = lack of oxygen (hypoxia) = death of aquatic life
What are some potential solutions to a dead zone?
Reducing inputs on farms (synthetic fertilizers that contain nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, etc.)
Cover crops to absorb excess nutrients and prevent erosion
Clean Water Act
Created National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
Upgraded Municipal Sewage Treatment Plants
Created Total Maximum Daily Loads
Led to significant improvements in surface water quality
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
Permits given to municipalities and industries that limit the amount of pollution they’re allowed to emit
Total Maximum Daily Loads (TMDL)
Monitors the amount of pollutants in a specific body of water
If those levels go beyond their established limit, states have to address it
Safe Drinking Water Act
Set national standards for drinking water
Biden regulated PFAS (“forever chemicals” found in everyday household objects such wrappers, cookware, nail polish, cleaning products, etc.)
Is bottled water actually safer or better than municipal water?
Only in some cases (natural disasters) b/c:
- has less strict standards
- is tested less frequently
- mostly recycled municipal water
- leaching of microplastics
- takes more water to make the bottles that the bottles store
- plastic waste ends up in landfills
Upper Susquehanna Coalition
Aims to address pollution along the Chesapeake Bay watershed by talking with farmers upstream and planting trees/vegetation along streams
Municipal Wastewater Treatment
Cleaning water so it can be pumped back into a waterbody and made safe enough to drink (through reverse osmosis)
Primary vs Secondary Wastewater Treatment
Physically separating large solids from the water through screening and settlement tanks
VS
Introducing microorganisms such as bacteria to decompose any remaining organic material
What are some other solutions to water pollution that require less money and infrastructure?
Using duckweed, UV light, and constructing wetlands (natural filters)
What shifts/trends can be seen with energy sources?
Expectation that we’ll move towards renewables because they’re more efficient and have less environmental risks
Where does the majority of energy in the US come from?
Petroleum (oil) and natural gas
Majority of renewable energy is biomass
Climate Leadership and Community Protection Act (2019)
Aim that New York State will have 100% zero-emission electricity by 2040
Passive houses
Way of transitioning to renewables by reducing energy use
Optimize natural light, minimize heat loss, good insulation
What are some examples of renewable energy?
Solar, Wind, Hydropower, Biomass, Geothermal
Solar Power
Uses panels with photovoltaic cells to convert solar energy to electricity
Can be installed in open spaces (solar farms) or on houses
Solar Grazing
AKA Agrivoltaics
Partnering with farmers to use sheep to graze around solar panels (keeps the vegetation short without mowing)
Wind Power
Kinetic energy of wind captured by turbines in offshore wind farms
China is main producer, followed by USA
What are some ways we can address concerns about birds with wind power?
Painting the blades a color that is more visible to birds
Not putting turbines in migration corridors
Using sensors to turn the blades off when a flock of birds goes by
Hydropower
Producing electricity from flowing water using dams
Produces a ton of energy in a mostly consistent manner without emitting CO2
What are some cons of hydropower?
Climate change causing droughts, land destruction during the building of dams, negatively affecting downstream ecosystems by influencing flow, expensive, few suitable sites for them
Biomass
Fuel made from living materials like wood, shrubs, or agricultural products (ex: making ethanol out of corn in US or sugarcane in Brazil)
What are some concerns with using biomass?
Agriculture requires/uses lots of space, water, chemicals, pesticides, herbicides
Conversion of grasslands into agricultural land
Some CO2 emissions
Deforestation
Geothermal Power
Heat stored in soil, underground rock, and fluids in the earth’s mantle
Extracted using heat pump system or petroleum drilling technology (using same infrastructures from oil/gas drilling to get geothermal energy)
What are some examples of nonrenewable energy?
Coal, Oil, Natural Gas, Nuclear Power
Coal
Solid fossil fuel made from the remains of land plants
Abundant globally + thus relatively cheap
What are some problems with using coal?
It’s dirty, contributes to air pollution, causes environmental damage at mining sites, and can be dangerous for workers (due to mining accidents and lung diseases)
What trends can be seen with coal production worldwide?
US moving away from coal and towards LNG
China + India shifting towards coal
Oil
Can be refined and using to make chemicals, paints, plastics, etc.
Extracted through offshore drilling and Canadian oil sands
What are some risks of oil extraction?
Oil spills in ocean (ex: BP spill in Gulf of Mexico 2010)
Habitat destruction
Displacement of indigenous peoples
Nuclear Power
Controlled nuclear fission occurring in a reactor
Requires the mining of uranium, which is limited
Water used as a coolant
Nuclear Fission
The splitting apart of nuclei, releasing energy
Each fission releases neutrons, causing more chain reactions
Fuel Rods vs Control Rods
Contain packed uranium vs absorb neutrons to control the speed of the reaction
What are some advantages of nuclear power?
No carbon emissions, produces a ton of power, new tech/safety protocols make accidents very rare
What are some disadvantages of nuclear power?
Requires very specific locations (safety reasons), risk of meltdowns, deals with radioactive waste, negative perception of safety, local resistance, expensive (to build + to slow down)
Natural Gas
Small organic compounds that accumulate at the the top of coal or oil deposits
Emits less CO2 but more methane
Extracted through fracking
Fracking
Pumping water, sand, and chemicals into shale formations where gas accumulates
Risks of groundwater contamination and mini-earthquakes
Is the US a net exporter or importer of energy?
Exporter (as of 2019) due to increased production of LNG
What are some issues discussed with LNG plants?
Air, light, sound, and water pollution
Flaring - releasing more than they should
Destruction of wetlands
What is going on with Germany’s infrastructure related to LNG?
Cut off by Russia due to Ukraine War = building infrastructure to accept LNG from USA = opens the door to increased use of NG and turning away from renewables + Germany becomes a middle man
