Test 4 Flashcards
What hormones are released from the adrenal medulla
Epinephrine (80%) and Norepinephrine (20%)
What kinds of hormones are secreted from the adrenal gland
steroids from the cortex
catecholamines from the medulla
What is the Adrenal medulla made of, and thereby controlled by
post-ganglionic sympathetic neurons
sympathetic nervous system
What affect does Epinephrine have on the pancrease
inhibits secretion of Insulin and promotes secretion of glucagon
what affect does epinephrine have on the liver
It causes the liver to convert glycogen into glucose
What affect does epinephrine have on skeletal muscle
causes the muscle to convert glycogen into lactate, that lactate then gets converted to glucose in the liver
What is the overall affect of epinephrine
it increases blood sugar levels
what controls the release of epinephrine
the sympathetic nervous system through the neurotransmitter acetocholine
What are the three classes of Corticosteroids
Minerolocorticoloids - aldosterone
Glucocorticoroids - Cortisol
Sex Hormones - DHEA
Where do corticosteroids get secreted from
the adrenal cortex
What does cortisol do
- increase blood sugar (by increasing glucogenesis in the liver, and decreasing glucose uptake)
- increases protein degredation (especially in muscle)
- Increase in lipolysis
What regulates the secretion of Cortisol
Stress and circadian rhythm cause
hypothalamus to secrete CRH causes
Ant. Pituitary to secrete ACTH causes
increased cortisol secretion
Increased cortisol negatively feedsback to hypothalamus and Ant. Pituitary
What is Cushings Disease
Hypersecretion of cortisol
What can cause cushings disease
- hypersecretion of
CRH
ACTH
and or cortisol
What does Cushings disease cause
increased blood sugar = increased fat deposits (Moon Face) Weak Muscles Stretch marks poor wound healing Mental retardation in children
What is the common precursor for all steroid hormones
Cholesterol
What is 21 hydroxylase
The enzyme that helps form cortisol from Pregnenolone
What happens when there is a deficieny of 21 hydroxylase
Pregnenolone can’t be turned into cortisol, so most of it is turned into DHEA.
Excessive DHEA leads to excessive Adrenal Androgens.
That leads to early puberty in males and ambiguous sex development in females
What is the disease called when there is a shortage of 21 hydroxylase
congenital adrenal Hyperplasia
early puberty in males, ambiguous sex differentiaion in females
What is the exocrine function of the pancreas
digestive enzymes
what are the endocrine hormones of the pancreas
insulin
glucagon
somatostatin
What cells secrete insulin
beta cells
What cells secrete glucagon
alpha cells
What cells secrete somatostatin
delta cells
What happens with the pancreas and liver when there is low blood sugar
- pancreas secretes glucagon
- glucagon stimulates the liver
- increase glycogenolysis
- increase gluconeogenesis
- decrease glycogenesis
- That all increases blood sugar levels
What does glucagon do for carbohydrate metabolism
increases blood sugar
what does glucagon do for fat metabolism
increases blood fatty acids and ketones
- decreases triglyceride synthesis from glucose and fatty acids
- increases lipolysis
- increases ketogenesis
what does glucagon do for protein metabolism
there isn’t a large effect on blood amino acid levels
- increases gluconeogenesis (uses AA’s)
- increases protein degredation
- decreases protein synthesis
What is the overall action of glucagon
promotes hepatic glucose production and secretion
What are the steps of glucagon signaling
- glucagon binds to the receptor
- g protein moves over to adenylate cyclase and activates it
- that turns atp into cAMP
- cAMP activates PKA
- PKA phosphorylates other proteins
- This initiates a cellular response
What is the primary action of insulin
decrease blood glucose (makes cells absorb it better)
What does insulin do for carbohydrate metabolism
- increases glucose uptake into most cells
- increases glycogenesis in skeletal muscle and liver
- decreases glycogenolysis in skeletal muscle and liver
- decreases gluconeogenesis in liver
What does insulin do for fat metablolism
- increase triglyceride synthesis from glucose and fatty acids
- decreases lipolysis
What does insulin do for protein metabolism
- increases amino acid transport into cells
- increases protein synthesis
- decreases protein degredation
What does insulin do for
adipose tissue
liver
muscle
- increases glucose uptake and storage as fat
- increases glucose uptake and storage as glycogen and fat
- increases glucose uptake and storage as glycogen
how exactly does insulin cause increased glucose uptake into cells
- Insulin binds to IR (insulin receptor)
- This causes IRS1 to be activated
- this causes translocation of the GLUT 4 in microvesicles to the sarcolemna
- The GLUT 4 molecules are the glucose channels that allow Glucose to enter the cell
What are the different methods of control for insulin release
Food intake
- increase gastrointestinal hormones stimulate insulin release
- parasympathetic situation causes insulin to release
High blood amino acid concentration stimulates insulin release sympathetic stimulation (epinephrine) decreases insulin release
Blood glucose levels
What is the major control of insulin release
blood glucose levels
What does Diabetes Mellitus mean
increased urine output, sweet tasting
what is diabetes mellitus
a group of diseases characterized by elevated blood glucose levels
What is Type 1 Diabetes mellitus
Caused by an autoimmune destruction of the beta cells of the pancreatic islets
This causes insulin deficiency
patients must take insulin to survive
What is Type 2 Diabetes mellitus
An increase in insulin resistance
90% of all diabetics
early on the insensitivity is compensated for by increased insulin secretion
when insulin defiecieny occurs then you have hyperglycemia
What is the average age of onset for type 2
35
what are the 6 problems created by an insulin deficiency
- polyuria
- polyphagia
- polydipsia
- muscle wasting
- ketosis
- peripheral circulatory failure
What are the short term complications for Diabetes
- hyperglycemia
- glycosuria (dehydration due to osmotic diuresis)
- Ketoacidosis
What are the long term complications for diabetes
- Atherosclerosis
- renal failure
- retinopathy
- neuropathy
how prevelent is diabetes
8% of people in the us
25% for people over 60
what are the treatments for diabetes
lifestyle changes - exercise - diet changes Medication - insulin sensitizers - insulin
What are the treaments for major medial complicatoins from diabetes
dialysis
amputation
not much for retinopathy and neuropathy
what caused the sharp rise in diabetes in kids
fatter from the diets,. and less exercise due to video games
How does exercising help prevent diabetes
Muscle contractions also stimulate the GLUT 4 to move to the sarcolemma increasing glucose uptake by the cells
How does muscle contraction act like insulin and increase glucose uptake
it stimulates the activation of AMPK which helps in the translocation of GLUT 4 to the sarcolemma
What is AMPK
an energy sensing enzyme that counteracts impending ATP depletion
How does AMPK fight impending ATP depletion
- acutely activates fatty acid oxidation and glucose uptake (sources of energy for ATP synthesis)
- Increases capacity for ATP synthesis (GLUT 4 and mitochondrial enzymes) in response to endurance training
what are the benefits of running for diabetes
muscle contraction has an insulin like effect
inactivity decreases insulin sensitivity of muscle
endurance training increases insulin activity in muscle
- wears off after 40 hours
What are other health reasons to run
- reduces the risk of premature death
- reduces the risk of heart disease
- reduces the risk of hypertension
- reduces the risk of colon cancer
What are the two hormones secreted by adipose tissue
- Adiponectin
- Leptin
What does adiponectin do
increased glucose uptake and decrease glucose formation in liver
decreases caloric intake and increases BMR in hypothalamus
What Leptin do
decreases caloric intake and increases BMR in hypothalamus
increases fatty acid oxidation in muscle
What is a virus
DNA/RNA in a protein coat
What is a bacteria
single celled living microorganism
What are the functions of the immune system
- defend against invading pathogens (major targets are viruses and bacteria)
- Remove worn out cells and tissue damaged by trauma
- identifies and destroys abnormal or mutant cells that originated inside the body
- Mounts innappropriate immune responses that lead either to allergies or to autoimmune diseases
How do Bacteria attack cells
they shoot them with toxins
how do viruses attack cells
they invade and take over the cell, which can transform the cell, starve it, and cause it to shoot out toxins
What are the 5 types of leukocytes
- Neutrophils
- Eosinophils
3, Basophils - Monocytes
- Lymphocytes
- B cells
- T cells
What do Neutrophils do
Phagocytosis
What do Eosinophils do
Parasitic destruction and allergic reactions
What do basophils do
histamine and heparin release, allergic reactions
What do monocytes do
transform into macrophages (phagocytosis)
What do lymphocytes do
B cells - Secrete antibodies (antibody mediated immunity)
T cells - destory virus infected and mutant cells (Cell-mediated immunity)
What are the two categories of immune defense
Innate (nonspecific) immunity
Adaptive (specific) immunity
What is innate immunity
inherited as part of the organism
nonselectively fights against forein invaders
first line of defense
rapid but limited response
What is adaptive immunity
organism adapts to defend against specific invaders
What are the defenses of the innate immunity
- Inflammation
- Interferon
- Natural Killer Cells
- Complement system
What is inflammation
an innate non specific series of events that occur in response to an injury or infection of a tissue
What is the goal of inflammation
bring phagocytotic cells, fluid, and plasma proteins (clotting factors and compliment proteins) to the affected area to
- kill microorganisms
- Remove debris
- prepare the tissue for healing
What are the steps of the inflammatory response
- Activation of Macrophages - phagocytosis (this makes cytokines)
- Histamines released from the mast cells- vasodilation
- cytokines and histamine increase capillary permeability
- Leukocytes migrate out into tissue
- the Debris and bacteria are phagocytized
What are mast cells
tissue bound basophils
What are phagocytic secretions and what do they do
They are secretions from the phagocytes that become important when there are lots of phagocytes in the tissues.
Those secretions secretes Endogenous Pyrogen
What Does Endogenous Pyrogen do
Pyrogen enters the blood and travels up to the hypothalamus, where it stimulates the release of prostoglandin, which increases the body’s thermostat
How Do NAIDS affect inflammation
not sure
What are interferons
an innate non specific defense mechanism
what do interferons do
Interfere with viral replicatoin
How do interferons interfere with viral replication
- a cell affected with a virus produces interferons
- These interferons travel to nearby cells
- at the other cells they bind and trigger the production of enzymes
4,. these enzymes prevent viral replication and break down the viral RNA
Virus’ can still invade the cell, but they can’t control it
What are natural killer cells
Non specific, they attack any virus infected or cancerous cell
They are rapidly activated
They are limited in their response
What is the compliment system
- produced by the liver
- Non specific defense mechanism
- COmplements the actions of antibodies
- made up of 9 proteins (usually inactive)
What are the two pathways of the compliment system
alternate pathway and classical pathway
what is the alternate pathway of compliment system
C1 non specifically binds to bacteria
What is the classic pathway of the compliment system
C1 binds to antibodies specific to the bacteria
What are the actions of the compliment system
Augmentation of inflammation - Chemotaxis - Opsonization (better phagocytosis) - Mast cell activation - vasodilation MAC formation
What is MAC
The membrane attack complex
How does MAC destroy bacteria
the long skinny proteins dive into the membrane creating a pore that leads to lysis of the bacteria.
Activating C1 starts it all, then one C5 dives in, C6 dives in next to it C7 and C8 do the same. Then A bunch of C9’s join in to finish the pore
What is adaptive immunity
organism adapts to defend against specific invaders
What are the two classes of adaptive immunity
Antibody mediated immunity
Cell mediated immunity
what are the two players in antibody mediated immunity
Antigen and Antibody
What is an antigen
Any foreign protein that is unique from body proteins
What is an antibody
protein molecules produced by B lymphocytes in response to the introduction of an antigen
What is the process of antibody synthesis
- Millions of different clones of B cells are developed as a fetus
- Each clone of a B cell has surface receptors for a specific antigen
- The B clone cells are inactive until activated by an antigen
- once they are activated by the antigen, the cells differentiate into plasma cells and memory cells
What do plasma cells do in antigen mediated immunity
They create the antibodies needed to fight the antigens
What do Memory cells do in antigen mediated immunity
They are just copies of the original clone, but now there are many so that if the antigen returns again the body will be way more prepared
What is an antibody shaped like
a y, with the antigen receptors at the top points
What kind of feedback is the anitgen/antibody mediated immune system
Negative
What can antibodies do
- Agglutination (clumping of cells)
- Opsonization (bacteria/virus made prone to phagocytosis)(phagocyte encircles the bacteria)
- Neutralization (poisons are made non toxic)
- Activation of a compliment system Antibody binds to bacteria and C1
- Stimulation of Natural Killer cells (antibody binds to bacteria and natural killer cells)
What is the difference between primary and secondary immune responses
secondary immune response is about 3 times as strong, and twice as fast.
How do vaccinations work
- a Dead or attenuated pathogen is injected
- The body mounts an attack against the antigen and makes memory cells
- Then when the real pathogen comes, the immune response is fast and powerful so that no or few symptoms show.
What is cell mediated immunity
involves the production of activated T lymphocytes
- Directly attack unwanted cells
What are the three types of T lymphocytes
Cytotoxic T cells
Helper T cells
Suppressor T cells
What do cytotoxic T cells do
destroy cancer cells and virus infected cells
How do Cytotoxis T cells work
- Cytotoxic T cells have an antigen receptor on them that are very specific like cloned b cells
- When the antigen is bound by a class 1 MHC the Cytotoxic t cells recognize the antigen
- this activates the Cytotoxic T cell and causes it to replicate creating an army of specific cells
- Then the Cytotoxic T cells kill the infected cell by secreting perforin molecules (like natural killer cells)
- once the cell is destroyed the virus gets out and is destroyed by macrophages, antibodies, and the compliment system
What do helper t cells do
secrete cytokines to enhance the activity of cytotoxic t cells, b cells, and macrophages
What do suppressor t cells do
supress b cell, cytotoxic t cell, and helper t cell activity.
What is AIDS
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
Caused by HIV
HIV attacks helper T cells
patient dies from infections and cancers that would normally be easily handled
What is immune tolerance
normally the immune system doesn’t form antibodies against proteins from your body
What are the Two Immune diseases
Autoimmunity - the immune system creates antibodies against ones own tissues or proteins
Allergy - Inappropriate immune attacks against harmless environmental substances
What determines the genetic Sex of the individual
Whether the individual is XX or XY
How does male development occur
- SRY stimulates the creation of TDF
- TDF directs differentiation into Testes
- The Testis secrete testosterone and MIH
- Testosterone causes Wolfiann ducts to develop
- MIH inhibits the growth of the Mullerian duct
- Testosterone is converted into DHT
- DHT promotes the development of penis and scrotum
What is Gonadal Sex
whether you have ovaries, or testes
What is phenotypic sex
internal = mullerian or wolfiann ducts External = penis or vagina
How does female development occur
- No SRY = no TDF
- Lack of TDF leads to development of ovaries
- Ovaries don’t secrete Testosterone or MIH
- No testosterone = wolfian ducts don’t develop
- No MIH = Mullerian ducts develop
- N testosterone = no DHT
- No DHT = no penis (clitoris and labia)
what does the genital tubercle turn into for males and females
Penis and clitoris
What does the urogenital folds turn into for males and females
penis and labia minora
What does the labioscrotal swellings become for males and females
scrotum and labia majora
What are some errors in sexual differentiation
Hermaphroditism
pseudohermaphroditism
female hermaphroditism
male hermaphroditism
What is hermaphroditism
Ovarian and testicular tissue is present
what is a probable cause of hermaphroditism
some cells may be lacking the short arm of the Y chromosome with the SRY gene
What is pseudohermaphroditism
Individual has either testes and ovaries, but accessory sex organs, or external genetilia are not appropriate for thier chromosomal sex
what is female hermaphroditism
chromosomal female/male external genetilia
What is a possible cause of female hermaphroditism
congenital adrenal hyperplasia
What is male hermaphroditism
Chromosomal male/female external genetalia
What are the possible causes of male hermaphroditism
5 alpha reductase deficiency
testicular feminization syndrome or lack of testosterone receptors
What is congenital adrenal hyperplasia
lack of 21 hydroxylase leads to extra DHEA production, which leads to excess adrenal androgens. This leads to early puberty in males, and wrong sex development in females
What does 5 alpha reductase do
convert testosterone to DHT
What would happen if you didn’t have enough 5 alpha reductase
you would have testis, and internal male phenotypic sex, but you would not have male external phenotypic sex
What happens if a man doesn’t have testosterone receptors
They dont have either internal phenotypic sex and they have female external phenotype
What are the parts of the testis
ductus deferens
epidydimis
seminiferous tubules
leydig cells
What do the leydig cells do
secrete testosterone
How are leydig cells stimulated in development
Plancental HCG stimulates them to make testosterone which leads to male development
How is testosterone controlled at puberty
GnRH released from Hypothalamus
stimulates Lh release from ant pit
Lh causes leydig cells to secrete testosterone
that leads to pubertal growth and maturation
INcreased testosterone goes back and does negative feedback on the hypothalamus and the ant pit
Where do the sperm develop in the testis
between the sertoli cells
where are the sertoli cells
in the seminiferous tubules
How do sperm develop
they start out on the edge of the seminiferous tubules and slowely work toward the lumen of the seminiferous tubules as they develop
How is spermatogenesis controlled
- Hypothalamus secretes GnRH
- that causes Ant. Pit to secrete FSH and LH
- FSH directly causes sertoli cells to do spermatogenesis
- Lh causes leydig cells to produce Testosterone
- Testosterone causes sertoli cells to do spermatogeneis too.
Testosterone the does negative feedback on the Hypothalamus and the Ant. Pit (LH)
Sertoli cells secrete inhibin as they make sperm, this goes back and does negative feedback on the Ant Pit (FSH)
What is the function of the ovaries
Produce ova
secrete estrogen and progesterone
What is the function of the ovaducts
transport ova
site of fertalization
What is the function of the uterus
maintain fetus during pregnancy
expels fetus during childbirth
what is the function of the vagina
site of sperm deposition during sex
passageway for delivery of the baby
What are the functions of estrogen
- essential for ova maturation and release
- Establishes 2ndary female sexual charateristics
- essential for transport of sperm from vagina to oviduct
- contributes to breast development in anticipation of lactation
What are the functions of progesterone
- important for preparing a suitable environment in the uterus for nourishing a developing baby
- Contributes to breasts’ ability to produce milk
What is the menstual cycle
repeated changes in the ovary and uterus
What are the two parts of the menstrual cycle
- Ovarian cycle
2. Uterine cycle
What causes the menstual cycle
changes in estrogen and progesterone concentrations
what are the parts of the ovarian cycle
- follicular phase
- luteal phase
What is the follicular phase
phase during which the follicle matures
what is a follicle
developing ovum and surrounding granulosa cells
What is the luteal phase
marked by the presence of the corpus luteum
what is the corpus luteum
developes from the ruptured follicle
What do the granulosa cells do
secretes estrogen and inhibin
nourish the ovum
What does FSH do during the follicular phase
induces antrum formation
stimulates proliferation of granulosa cells
What does estrogen do during the follicular phase
stimulates proliferation of the granulosa cells
what does LH do during follicular phase
stimulates estrogen secretion
What hormone dominates during the follicular phase
estrogen
the thecal and follicular cells start to secrete estrogen from the follicle during the follicular phase
kj
what causes the estrogen levels to continually rise during the follicular phase
rising LH levels
how is ovulation controlled
It is triggered by a surge in LH, it occurs when estrogen reaches high enough levels that it switches from an inhibitor of LH to a stimulator
What happens in the luteal phase
- After egg is pushed out Corpus luteum forms
- This secretes progesterone and estrogen
- progesterone inhibits FSH and LH secretion
- This prepares the uterus for implantation
- if no fertalization occurs then the corpus luteum degenerates ending the luteal phase
What are the phases of the uterine cycle
Proliferative phase
Secretory phase
Menstrual phase
What is the proliferative phase
- starts at the end of the ovarian follicular phase
- Estrogen stimulates thickening of the endometrium
- from end of menstruation to ovulation
What is the secretory phase
starts at ovulation and ends when the corpus luteum degenerates
converts estrogen primed endometrium to be highly vascularized
What is the menstrual phase
first day of menstruation stars a new cycle
starts at the end of the ovarian luteal phase
discharge of blood and endometrial debris
lasts up to 5 to 7 days
What affect does the sympathetic NS have on erections
it kills them, the norepinephrine causes vasoconstriction
What happens to form an erection
- Stimulus increases parasympathetic and decreases sympathetic
- this causes the arterioles to dialate, and it causes the bulbourethral and urethral galnds to secrete mucus
- arteriole dialation leads to an erection
- the erection compresses veins leading to even more erection
What is the chemical happenings during an erection
- NO is released from the parasympathetic neuron
- this activates guanylyl cyclase
- this converts GTP to cGMP
- this causes relaxation and dialation
- PDE-5 gets rid of cGMP and gets rid of the erection
What does viagra do
if blocks PDE-5 making easier to get and sustain an erection
What are the steps of ejaculation
emission
expulsion
What happens during emission
continual stimulation causes spinal reflex activation of sympathetic nerves to the prostate seminal vesicles and reproductive ducts, this causes them to deliver semen to urethra
What happens during expulsion
semen in the urethra triggers sysmpathetic reflex, skeletal muscle contractions at the base of the penis
How does fertalization occur
Estrogen helps carry sperm into the oviduct where it will meet the ova
many sperm use thier acrosome to try to break through the corona radiata
once one gets through its head pops off inside with the DNA and fertalization has occured
Where does fertalization occur
oviduct
what happens when the acrosome touches the corona radiata
it releases enzymes to break down the corona radiata and the zona pelucida
What happens when one sperm reaches the plasma membrane
a change in the membrane is triggered and no more spermies can get in
what happens after fertalization (when the egg and sperm fuse)
The zygote mitotically divides over and over again forming a blastocyst
what does the blastocyst do
migrates to the uterus where it implants on the endometrium
What is the placenta
the inner most lining of the endometrium, a temprorary endocrine organ
What does the placenta do
its the organ of exchange between maternal and fetal blood
What are the hormones that change during pregnancy released from the placenta
hCG - spikes a lot right after fertalization and then drops quickly
Estrogen - steadily increases from day 1 to delivery
Progesterone - steadily increases from day 1 to delivery but not as much as estrogen
What is hCG
Human chorionic gonadotropin
when is hCG produced and by what
the firts trimester of pregnancy, by the placenta
what does hCG do
maintains the corpus luteum (which secretes estrogen and progesterone) until the placenta takes over in the 2nd trimester
What does estrogen do in pregnancy
Maintains endometrium
stimulates growth of myometrium
where does estrogen come from in pregnancy
1st trimester the corpus luteum, after that the placenta
where does progesterone come from in pregnancy
1st trimester the corpus luteum, after that the placenta
What does progesterone do in pregnancy
Maintains endometrium
supresses uterine contractions
uterine plug formation
