TEST 3 (UNITS 8 - 10) Flashcards
how we grow, develop, and change throughout the lifespan.
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Rod-shaped structures, found in the nuclei of body cells, that contain all the genes and carry all the hereditary information.
CHROMOSOMES
HOW MANY CHROMOSOMES ARE FOUND IN EACH CELL?
23 PAIRS
- 22 AUTOSOMAL PAIRS
- 23RD PAIR ARE SEX CHROMOSOMES
Genes are segments of this located on each of the chromosomes
DNA
Within the chromosomes, the segments of DNA that are the basic units for the transmission of hereditary traits
GENES
A gene that is expressed in the individual
DOMINANT TRAIT
A gene that will not be expressed if paired with a dominant gene, but will be expressed if paired with another recessive gene
RECESSIVE TRAIT
It carries the genes that determine one’s sex and primary and secondary sex characteristics
SEX CHROMOSOMES
3 STAGES OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
- Period of the zygote
- Period of the embryo
- Period of the fetus
STAGE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: Time after Conception: 1 to 2 weeks
PERIOD OF THE ZYGOTE
STAGE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: Zygote attaches to the uterine lining.
PERIOD OF THE ZYGOTE
STAGE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: At 2 weeks, zygote is the size of the period at the end of this sentence.
PERIOD OF THE ZYGOTE
STAGE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: Time after Conception: 3 to 8 weeks
PERIOD OF THE EMBRYO
STAGE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT:
Major systems, organs, and structures of the body develop.
PERIOD OF THE EMBRYO
STAGE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: * Period ends when first bone cells appear.
PERIOD OF THE EMBRYO
STAGE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT: * At 8 weeks, embryo is about 2.5 cm long and weighs about 4g
PERIOD OF THE EMBRYO
STAGE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT:9 weeks to birth (38 weeks)
PERIOD OF THE FETUS
STAGE OF PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT:Rapid growth and further development of the body structures, organs, and systems.
PERIOD OF THE FETUS
What are the environmental influences on an unborn child?
- TERATOGENS
2. CRITICAL PERIOD
Harmful agents in the prenatal environment that can have a negative impact on prenatal development and even cause birth defects.
TERATOGENS
A period that is so important to development that a harmful environmental influence can keep a bodily structure or behaviour from developing normally.
CRITICAL PERIOD
4 ADAPTATIVE NEONATE REFLEXES
- sucking
- swallowing
- coughing
- blinking
What are the physical changes that occur during INFANCY?
- sitting, standing, and walking;
- physical and motor development proceeds from the head downward to the trunk and legs, so babies lift their heads before they sit, and sit before they walk, etc.
What are the physical changes that occur during PUBERTY?
- ejaculation, menarche.
- begins with the onset of puberty–biological changes characterized by a period of rapid physical growth and change that culminates in sexual maturity.
What are the physical changes that occur during MIDDLE AGE?
FEMALES: Menopause
MALES: experience a gradual decline in their testosterone levels
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development:
ASSIMILATION & ACCOMMODATION
The process by which new objects, events, experiences, or pieces of information are incorporated into existing schemas
ASSIMILATION
The process by which existing schemas are modified and new schemas are created to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, or information
ACCOMMODATION
The process of learning socially acceptable behaviours, attitudes, and values
SOCIALIZATION
To function effectively and comfortably within that society, we must come to know the patterns of behaviour that it considers desirable and appropriate.
SOCIALIZATION
What are the 8 psychosocial stages of development proposed by Erikson?
- Trust vs. mistrust
- Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
- Initiative vs. guilt
- Industry vs. inferiority
- Identity vs. role confusion
- Intimacy vs. isolation
- Generativity vs. stagnation
- Ego integrity vs. despair
What is the concept of separation anxiety?
- fear and distress when the parent leaves them with another caretaker
- infants show separation anxiety once the attachment has formed
4 types of ATTACHMENT ID’D by Mary Ainsworth?
- secure
- resistant
- avoidant
- disorganized/disoriented
What are the 3 parenting styles outlined by Diane Baumrind?
- Authoritarian Parents - expect unquestioned obedience
- Authoritative Parents - set high standards, give rationale for rules.
- Permissive Parents - set few rules or limits
3 levels (6 stages) of moral development?
- Conventional - to gain approval or to follow the law.
- Postconventional - to ensure that human rights are protected.
- Preconventional - to avoid punishment or gain a reward.
Why is middle age often considered the prime of life?
Life satisfaction in older adults appears to be most strongly related to good health, as well as to a feeling of control over one’s life.
5 stages of coming to terms with death as proposed by Dr. Elisabeth Kubler-Ross?
- Denial and isolation
- Anger
- Bargaining
- Depression
- Acceptance
process that initiates, directs, and sustains behaviour
MOTIVATION
The desire to perform an act because it is satisfying or pleasurable in and of itself.
intrinsic motivation
The desire to perform an act in order to gain a reward or to avoid an undesirable consequence.
extrinsic motivation
INSTINCT THEORY: Over the course of those decades, the list of instincts expanded until thousands of instincts were being proposed to explain human behaviour.
eg. Two people fight because of their aggressive instinct.
INSTINCT THEORY & HUMAN MOTIVATION
INSTINCT THEORY: all living organisms have certain biological needs that must be met if they are to survive
EG. A person eats to reduce hunger.
DRIVE-REDUCTION THEORY & MOTIVATION
INSTINCT THEORY: Arousal theory suggests that the aim of motivation is to maintain an optimal level of arousal; if arousal is less than the optimal level, we do something to stimulate it; if arousal exceeds the optimal level, we seek to reduce it.
EG. A person climbs a mountain for excitement; a person listens to classical music for relaxation
AROUSAL THEORY & MOTIVATION
The tendency of the body to maintain a balanced internal state with regard to body temperature, blood sugar, water, oxygen level, and so forth to ensure physical survival.
HOMEOSTASIS
The __________-__________ Law suggests that performance on tasks is best when arousal levels are appropriate to the difficulty of the task
Yerkes-Dodson
List, in order, the needs found in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
- physiological needs
- safety needs
- belonging & love needs
- esteem needs
- need for self-actualization
Differentiate extracellular and intercellular thirst
extracellular thirst: occurs when fluid is lost from the body tissues.
intracellular thirst: involves the loss of water from inside the body cells.
Describe the relationship of blood sugar to hunger
low blood sugar levels stimulate appetite
2 areas of the hypothalamus that are of central importance in regulating eating behaviour and thus affect the hunger drive:
- lateral hypothalamus
2. ventromedial hypothalamus
WHAT PART OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS? acts in part as a feeding centre and, when activated, signals an animal to eat; when the LH is destroyed, the animal initially refuses to eat.
lateral hypothalamus
WHAT PART OF THE HYPOTHALAMUS? presumably acts as a satiety centre and, when activated, signals an animal to stop eating; when the area is destroyed, the animal overeats, becoming obese
ventromedial hypothalamus
List biological factors that stimulate eating.
- activity in lateral hypothalamus
- low blood sugar levels
- increase in insulin
- stomach contractions
- empty stomach
List environmental factors that stimulate eating.
- aroma of food
- sight & taste of appetizing food
- acquired food preferences
- being around others who are eating
- foods high in fat & sugar
- learned eating habits
- reaction to boredom, stress, unpleasant emotional state
Both men and women are driven by social motives & among these is THIS
NEED FOR ACHIEVEMENT
3 components of emotions.
- Physical: physiological arousal (internal bodily state accompanying the emotion).
- Cognitive: The way we interpret a stimulus or situation.
- Behavioural: Outward expression of the emotion (facial expressions, gestures, body posture, tone of voice)
THEORY OF EMOTION: The theory that emotional feelings result when we become aware odour physiological response to an emotion-provoking stimulus (in other words, we are afraid because we tremble).
James-Lange theory of emotion
THEORY OF EMOTION: An even causes a physiological and an emotional response simultaneously. One does not cause the other
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
ACCORDING TO Schachter’s cognitive theory, WHAT 2 things must happen for a person to feel an emotion:
- The person must first experience physiological arousal
- then there must be a cognitive interpretation or explanation of the physiological arousal so that the person can label it as a specific emotion
THEORY OF EMOTION: claims that an event occurs, a cognitive appraisal is made, and then the emotion and physiological arousal follow.
Lazarus cognitive-appraisal
6 primary emotions
- HAPPINESS
- SADNESS
- SURPRISE
- FEAR
- DISGUST
- ANGER
Discuss the role of emotion as a form of communication.
Emotions enable us to communicate our feelings, intentions, and needs more effectively than just words alone; thus, they make it more likely that others will respond to us.
is the area of study that attempts to explain how the actual, imagined, or implied presence of others influences the thoughts, feelings, and behaviour of individuals.
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
The likelihood that an overall impression or judgment of another will be influenced more by the first information received about that person than by information that comes later.
PRIMARY EFFECT
Explain the difference between a situational attribution and a dispositional attribution
We tend to make DISPOSITIONAL attributions to explain our own behaviour and SITUATIONAL attributions to explain the behaviour of others.
The tendency to overemphasize internal factors and underemphasize situational ones when explaining other people’s behaviour has been named the fundamental attribution error
fundamental attribution error
refers to our tendency to use internal attributions for our successes and external attributions for our failures
self-serving bias
4 factors that influence attraction
- Proximity
- Reciprocal Liking
- Attractiveness
- Similarity
changing or adopting a behaviour or an attitude to be consistent with the norms of a group of the expectations of others
CONFORMITY
acting in accordance with the wishes, the suggestions, or the direct requests of another person
COMPLIANCE
Findings of Milgram’s classic study of obedience:
Showed that a large majority of his participants would obey authority even if obedience caused great pain or was life threatening to another person.
Any positive or negative effect on performance due to the presence of others; either an audience effect or a co-action effect.
social facilitation
The impact of passive spectators on performance
social facilitation - audience effects
The impact on performance caused by the presence of others engaged in the same task.
social facilitation - co-action effects
Performance improves on ________ tasks and worsens on _________ tasks
EASY, DIFFICULT
The tendency to put forth less effort when working with others on a common task than when working alone
SOCIAL LOAFING
THIS is most likely to occur when individual output cannot be identified
SOCIAL LOAFING
Tendency of members of a group, after group discussion, to shift toward a more extreme position in whatever direction they were leaning initially.
group polarization
The behaviours considered to be appropriate for individuals occupying certain positions within a group.
ROLES
Tendency for members of a very cohesive group to feel such pressure to maintain group solidarity and to reach agreement on an issue that they fail to adequately weigh available evidence or to consider objections and alternatives.
GROUPTHINK
Explain how groupthink may contribute to poor decision making.
When a tightly knit group is more concerned with preserving group solidarity and uniformity than with objectively evaluating all possible alternatives in decision making, individual members may hesitate to voice any dissent. The group may also discredit opposing views from outsiders. Even plans bordering on madness can be hatched and adopted when groupthink prevails.
a relatively stable evaluation of a person, object, situation, or issue that varies along a continuum from negative to positive.
ATTITUDE
attitudes have 3 components:
- BELIEF Component
- EMOTIONAL component
- ACTION component
COMPONENT OF ATTITUDE: our thoughts and beliefs about the attitudinal object
eg. “Exercise is a good stress reliever.” or “Exercise is good for our health.”
BELIEF
COMPONENT OF ATTITUDE: our feelings toward the attitudinal object
eg. “Exercise is fun.”
EMOTIONAL
COMPONENT OF ATTITUDE: how we are predisposed to act toward the object
eg. “I exercise every day.” or “I read articles about exercise.”
ACTION
Unpleasant state that can occur when people become aware of inconsistencies between their attitudes or between their attitudes and their behaviour.
Cognitive dissonance
3 ways to reduce cognitive dissonance:
- changing an attitude.
- changing a behaviour.
- explaining away the inconsistency.
a deliberate attempt to influence the attitudes and/or behaviour of another.
PERSUASION
4 elements in persuasion:
- The source of the communication: who is doing the persuading
- The audience: who is being persuaded
- The message: what is being said.
- The medium: the means by which the message is transmitted.
_____________ is to attitude as discrimination is to behaviours.
PREJUDICE
Attitudes, usually negative, toward others based on their gender, religion, race, or membership in a particular group.
PREJUDICE
Behaviour, usually negative, directed toward others based on their gender, religion, race, or membership in a particular group.
DISCRIMINATION
Mental processes that people use to notice, interpret, remember, and apply information about the social world and that enable them to simplify, categorize, and order their world.
social cognition
Widely shared beliefs about the characteristic traits, attitudes, and behaviours or members of various social groups; these include the assumption that they are usually all alike.
STEREOTYPES
As the number of bystanders at an emergency increases, the probability that the victim will be helped by them decreases, and the help, if given, is likely to be delayed.
bystander effect
behaviours that benefit others, such as helping, cooperation, and sympathy
prosocial behaviour
When does pro-social behaviour occur.
People are more likely to receive help if they are physically attractive, if they are perceived by potential helpers as similar to them, and if they are not considered responsible for their plight. Potential helpers are more likely to help if they have specialized training in first aid or police work, if they are not in a hurry, if they have been exposed to a helpful model, if they are in a positive mood and if the weather is good.
claims that human beings, along with other animal species, are genetically programmed for aggressive behaviour.
INSTINCT THEORY
Interference with the attainment of a goal or the blocking of an impulse.
Frustration
hypothesis that frustration produces aggression.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
The social learning theory of aggression emphasizes:
- aggressive responses are learned from the family, the subculture, and the media.
- aggressive responses are learned through modelling.
- when aggressive responses are reinforced, they are more likely to continue.
The 23rd pair of chromosome
sex chromosomes
A gene that is expressed in the individual
dominant trait
Rod-shaped structures, found in the nuclei of body cells, that contain all the genes and carry all the hereditary information
chromosome
Within the chromosomes, the segments of DNA that are the basic units for the transmission of hereditary traits.
gene
Genes are segments of this located on each of the chromosomes
DNA
It carries the genes that determine one’s sex and primary and secondary sex characteristics
sex chromosome
A gene that will not be expressed if paired with a dominant gene, but will be expressed if paired with another recessive gene
recessive trait
The biological blueprint that determines and directs the transmission of all of our heredity traits
gene
In humans, genes are located on how many pairs of chromosomes?
a) 22 b) 23 c) 44 d) 46
b) 23
Twenty-two pairs of chromosomes are called ______________ and the 23rd pair is called _________.
a) complete; partial b) sex chromosomes; autosomes c) autosomes; sex chromosomes d) X;Y
c) autosomes; sex chromosomes
Sperm cells and the mature egg cells each have ______ single chromosomes.
a) 22 b) 23 c) 44 d) 46
b) 23
At conception, the sperm adds its _______ single chromosome to the _______ of the egg. This union forms a single cell called a __________ , which has the full _______ chromosomes (23 pairs), which in turn contains about _________ genes-the genetic material needed to make a human being.
23 23 zygote 46 30,000
Harmful agents in the prenatal environment that can have a negative impact on prenatal development and even cause birth defects.
Teratogens
A period that is so important to development that a harmful environmental influence can keep a bodily structure or behaviour from developing normally.
critical period
Although physical abnormalities are always possible, exposure to risks during the ______ trimester of pregnancy-the fourth, fifth, and sixth months-is likely to result in _________ and ___________ impairment.
second
intellectual
social
Many drugs cross the _________ and directly affect the embryo or fetus.
Many drugs cross the PLACENTAL BARRIER and directly affect the embryo or fetus.
