TEST 2 (UNITS 5 - 7) Flashcards by lindsay mckenzie

any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds

STIMULUS

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a relatively permanent change in behaviour, capability or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury or maturation

LEARNING

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a process through which a response previously made only to a specific stimulus is made to another stimulus that has been paired repeatedly with the original stimulus

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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a stimulus that elicits a specific response without prior learning; eg. food

UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS

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a response that is invariably elicited by the unconditioned stimulus without prior learning; eg. salivation in response to food

UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE

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a neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elects a conditioned response; eg. the tone

CONDITIONED STIMULUS

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a response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus; eg. salivation in response to the tone

CONDITIONED RESPONSE

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DEFINITION: the weakening and often eventual disappearance of learned response, by repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus

EXAMPLE:

EXTINCTION

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DEFINITION: the reappearance of an extinguished response (in a weaker form) when an organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following a rest period.

EXAMPLE:

SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY

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DEFINITION: in classical conditioning, the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus

EXAMPLE: a child attacked by a dog can easily develop a long-lasting fear of all dogs

GENERALIZATION

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DEFINITION: the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the conditioned response occurs only to the original conditioned stimulus but not to similar stimuli

EXAMPLE: this ability has survival value in that we know the difference between a rattlesnake and a garter snake

DISCRIMINATION

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DEFINITION: occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an existing conditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it, and gains the power to elicit the same conditioned response

EXAMPLE: Suppose that after Pavlov conditioned the dogs to salivate to a tone, he presented a light (neutral stimulus) immediately before the tone a number of times. The light would become associated with the tone, and the dogs would learn to give the salivation response to the light alone.

higher-order conditioning

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PRINCIPLE OF WHAT?
a type of learning in which the consequences of behaviour tend to modify that behaviour in the future (behaviour that is reinforced tends to be repeated; behaviour that is ignored or punished is less likely to be repeated).

OPERANT CONDITIONING

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PRINCIPLE OF WHAT?
the consequences of behaviour are manipulated to increase or decrease the frequency of a response or to shape an entirely new response.

OPERANT CONDITIONING

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DEFINITION: technique that reinforces any movement in the direction of the desired response, and gradually guiding the responses closer and closer to the ultimate goal

EXAMPLE: eg. Even though the B that Billy wrote looked more like a D, his teacher, Mrs. Chen, praised him because it was better than his previous attempts. Mrs. Chen is using a procedure called shaping.

SHAPING

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POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT?
a reward or pleasant consequence that follows a response and increases the probability that the response will be repeated

eg. salary raises, promotions, awards, bonuses, good grades, and candy

POSITIVE

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POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT? the termination of an unpleasant stimulus after a response in order to increase the probability that the response will be repeated

eg. turning on one’s air conditioner to terminate heat or getting out of bed to turn off a faucet to avoid listening to the annoying “drip, drip, drip.”

NEGATIVE

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Differentiate between primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers and examples of each kind

primary reinforcer: reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning; EG. food, water, sleep, sex, and the termination of pain

secondary reinforcer: neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing after repeated pairing with other reinforcers; EG. attention from others is a powerful type of this reinforcer

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4 factors that influence operant conditioning:

magnitude of reinforcement
immediacy of reinforcement
level of motivation
schedule of reinforcement

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3 factors that influence the effectiveness of punishment

timing of application
intensity of application
consistency of application

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Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning:

In classical conditioning, the focus is on what precedes the response. In operant conditioning, the focus is on what follows the response.

Generally, in classical conditioning, the subject is passive and responds to the environment rather than acting upon it. In operant conditioning, the subject is active and operates on the environment.

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learning from using reasoning, intuition and perception

COGNITIVE LEARNING

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Discuss the factors which determine whether or not modelling or observational learning will occur

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3 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE ACT OF REMEMBERING

ENCODING
STORAGE
RETRIEVAL

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transforming information into a form that can be stored in short-term or long-term memory

ENCODING

the act of maintaining information in memory

STORAGE

the act of bringing to mind material that has been stored in memory

RETRIEVAL

As information comes in through our senses, virtually everything we see, hear, fee, or otherwise sense, is held in sensory memory but only for the briefest period of time. Sensory memory normally holds visual images for a fraction of a second and holds sounds for about 2 seconds.

SENSORY MEMORY

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY? | very limited capacity; short duration

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY? | capacity is about 7 (plus or minus 2) different items or bits of information at one time

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY? used when we carry on a conversation, solve a problem or look up a telephone number and remember it just long enough to dial it.

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY? | "Working memory"

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY? codes information according to sound and can also hold visual images, and store information in semantic form (i.e., according to meaning).

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY? | stimulus tends to fade significantly after 20-30 seconds if it is not repeated.

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY? | virtually unlimited capacity; long duration

LONG-TERM MEMORY

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY? | no known limits to the storage capacity

LONG-TERM MEMORY

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY? | holds all the knowledge we have accumulated, the skills we have acquired, and the memories of our past experiences

LONG-TERM MEMORY

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY? | the relatively permanent memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity

LONG-TERM MEMORY

EXPLAIN HOW DISPLACEMENT AND REHEARSAL AFFECT SHORT-TERM MEMORY

displacement: occurs when short-term memory is filled to capacity; each incoming item pushes out an existing item, which is then forgotten

2 main subsystems within long-term memory:

declarative memory and non-declarative memory

DECLARATIVE MEMORY or NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY? "explicit memory"; the subsystem within long-term memory that stores facts, information, and personal life experiences

DECLARATIVE MEMORY

DECLARATIVE MEMORY or NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY? "implicit memory"; the subsystem within long-term memory that consists of skills acquired through repetitive practice, habits and simple classically conditioned responses

NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY

a single-memory system model in which retention depends on how deeply information is processed

LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING MODEL

6 CAUSES OF FORGETTING

1. encoding failure 2. consolidation failure 3. decay theory 4. interference 5. motivated forgetting 6. retrieval failure

CAUSE OF FORGETTING: forgetting resulting from material never having been put into long-term memory

ENCODING FAILURE

CAUSE OF FORGETTING: any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a permanent memory from forming

CONSOLIDATION FAILURE

CAUSE OF FORGETTING: a theory of forgetting that holds that the memory trace, if not used, disappears with the passage of time

DECAY THEORY

CAUSE OF FORGETTING: the cause of memory loss that occurs when information or associations stored either before or after a given memory hinder our ability to remember it

INTERFERENCE

CAUSE OF FORGETTING: forgetting through suppression or repression in order to protect oneself from material that is too painful, anxiety-or-guilt-producing, or otherwise unpleasant

MOTIVATED FORGETTING

CAUSE OF FORGETTING: the type of forgetting where we are certain we know something but we are not able to retrieve the information when we need it

RETRIEVAL FAILURE

IDENTIFY SOME FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION

- we tend to recall information better if we are in the same internal state as when the information was encoded - we tend to recall information better when we are in the same location - the same environmental context - as when the information was originally encoded

the tendency to recall information better if one is in the same pharmacological or psychological (mood) state as when the information was encoded.

state-dependent memory effect

4 STUDY HABITS THAT CAN AID MEMORY

1. organization 2. overlearning 3. spaced vs. massed practice 4. active learning vs. rereading

STUDY HABIT: organizing material to be learned is a tremendous aid to memory because we tend to retrieve information from long-term memory according to the way we have organized it for storage

ORGANIZATION

STUDY HABIT: practicing or studying material beyond the point where it can be repeated once without error

OVERLEARNING

STUDY HABIT: spacing studying over several different sessions generally is more effective than massed practice - learning in one long practice session without rest periods

SPACED VS. MASSED PRACTICE

STUDY HABIT: reading a paragraph and then practice recalling what you have just read - is much more effective than rereading

ACTIVE LEARNING VS. REREADING

an individual's "ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles by taking thought"

INTELLIGENCE

2 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE:

1. CRYSTALLIZED | 2. FLUID

Verbal ability and accumulated knowledge.

CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE

Abstract reasoning and mental flexibility.

FLUID INTELLIGENCE

8 intelligences as outlined by Howard Gardner:

1. Linguistic 2. Logical-mathematical 3. Spatial 4. Bodily-kinesthetic 5. Musical 6. Interpersonal 7. Intrapersonal 8. Naturalistic

DESCRIBE BINET'S ROLE IN INTELLIGENCE TESTING

- published the intelligence scale | - Intelligence Scale was an immediate success in most Western countries

4 components of IQ test:

1. Verbal Reasoning 2. Quantitative reasoning 3. Abstract visual reasoning 4. Short-term memory

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE WECHSLER TEST FROM THE STANFORD-BINET TEST

- Wechsler test contains both verbal and performance subtests, which yield separate verbal and performance IQ scores as well as an overall IQ score. - Wechsler test is a departure from the Stanford-Binet, which yields just one IQ score.

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL INTELLIGENCE TESTS

individual intelligence tests: expensive, time consuming and administered to one individual at a time by a psychologist. group intelligence tests: can be used when large numbers of people must be tested in a short period of time on a limited budget.

DESCRIBE THE PATTERN OF DISTRIBUTION OF IQ SCORES OBSERVED IN THE GENERAL POPULATION

- When large populations are measured on mental characteristics such as intelligence or on physical characteristics, the tests scores or results usually conform to the distribution known as the normal curve - Most of the scores cluster around the mean (average). The farther the scores deviates, or move away, from the mean, above or below, the fewer people there are.

STATE THE DIVIDING LINE BETWEEN NORMAL INTELLIGENCE AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITY

BELOW 70 is THE RANGE OF MENTAL DISABILITY

EXPLAIN WHAT IQ SCORES PREDICT

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND SUCCESS IN SCHOOL.

EXPLAIN PROBLEMS WITH IQ TESTS

NATURE VS NURTURE CONTROVERSY

DEFINE NATURE-NURTURE CONTROVERSY AS IT PERTAINS TO INTELLIGENCE

Studies have found a stronger relationship between IQ scores of adopted children and biological parents than their adoptive parents

________________ is to inherit (heredity) , as _______________ is to environment

NATURE, NURTURE

WHAT KIND OF INTELLIGENCE IS THIS? - refers to a set of capabilities that are separate from IQ - include an awareness of and an ability to manage one's own emotions, - ability to motivate oneself - empathy - ability to handle relationships successfully.

EMOTIONAL

- most common type of imagery; | - the representation in the mind of a sensory experience - visual, auditory, gustatory, motor, olfactory or tactile

MENTAL IMAGERY

DEFINE THE TERMS CONCEPT AND CONCEPT FORMATION AND EXPLAIN HOW THEY AID THOUGHT PROCESSES

3 PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUES

1. Trial and Error 2. ALGORITHMS 3. Heuristics

PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE: occurs when we try one solution after another, in no particular order, until by chance we hit upon the answer

TRIAL AND ERROR

PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE: * Formulas used in mathematics and other sciences. * The systematic exploration for every possible solution to a problem until the correct one is reached * A computer, programmed to provide an accurate solution after millions of possible solutions were tried in a few seconds.

ALGORITHMS

PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE: * A problem-solving method that does not guarantee success, but offers a promising way to attack a problem and arrive at a solution.

HEURISTICS

EXPLAIN HOW MENTAL SET AND FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS BLOCK PROBLEM-SOLVING

Sometimes the difficulty in problem solving lies not with the problem but with ourselves. Not surprisingly, the same people who are subject to mental set are also more likely to have trouble with functional fixedness when they attempt to solve problems

DEFINITION: * tendency to view an object in terms of its familiar usage is defined as: * refers to our tendency to use techniques that worked in the past

MENTAL SET

DEFINITION: not consider using familiar objects in new and creative ways

FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS

EXPLAIN THE RELATIONSHIP OF CREATIVITY TO DIVERGENT THINKING

- creative thinkers are proficient in divergent thinking | - all creative thought is divergent, but not all divergent thought is creative .

Producing one or more possible ideas, answers, or solutions to a problem rather than a single, correct response.

DIVERGENT THINKING

can be thought of as the ability to produce original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problems

CREATIVITY

DESCRIBE HOW CREATIVITY RELATES TO INTELLIGENCE

Research indicates that there is only a weak to moderate correlation between creativity and IQ.

Any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds is ________ a) learning b) a stimulus c) a reflex d) all of the above

b) a stimulus

_____________ is a relatively permanent change in behaviour, capability or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury or maturation

Learning

Ivan Pavlov, a Nobel prize-winning physiologist studied which of the following phenomena? a) maturation b) animal cognition c) operant condition d) classical conditioning

d) classical conditioning

Little Tammy is frightened by thunder and cries when she hears it. During a season of frequent electrical storms, thunder is always preceded by light night. Now Tammy cries as soon as she sees lightning. In this example, the conditioned response is: a) thunder b) lightning c) crying at the sound of thunder d) crying at the sound of lightning

d) crying at the sound of lightning

A puff of air on the surface of your eye will make you blink reflexively. If you hear a buzzer repeatedly just before air is puffed into your eye, eventually you will blink as soon as you hear the buzzer. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is the: a) eye blink response to the buzzer b) buzzer c) puff of air d) eye blink response to the puff of air

d) eye blink response to the puff of air

in classical conditioning, the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus

generalization

the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the conditioned response occurs only to the original conditioned stimulus but not to similar stimuli

discrimination

the reappearance of an extinguished response (in a weaker form) when an organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following a rest period.

spontaneous recovery

the weakening and often eventual disappearance of learned response, by repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus

extinction

through this process, a child attacked by a dog can easily develop a long-lasting fear of all dogs

generalization

this ability has survival value in that we know the difference between a rattlesnake and a garter snake

discrimination

In operant conditioning, the _____________ of ______________ are manipulated to increase or decrease the _____________ of a response or to ___________ an entirely new response.

consequences of behaviour frequency shape

In the psychology of learning, any event or object that strengthens or increases the probability of the response it follows is known as: a) the law of effect b) a reinforcer c) a punishment d) an aversive stimulus

b) a reinforcer

Behaviours that are __________ tend to be ______________. Behaviours that are __________ or punished are less likely to be ____________.

reinforced repeated ignored repeated

The technique that reinforces any movement in the direction of the desired response, and gradually guiding the responses closer and closer to the ultimate goal is called: a) training b) approximating c) shaping d) moulding

c) shaping

Even though the B that Billy wrote looked more like a D, his teacher, Mrs. Chen, praised him because it was better than his previous attempts. Mrs. Chen is using a procedure called _____________.

shaping

A ______________ is anything that ___________ a response or increases the probability that the response will occur. Reinforcement is a key concept in operant conditioning. There are 2 types of reinforcement, __________ and __________

reinforcer strengthens positive negative

the termination of an unpleasant stimulus after a response in order to increase the probability that the response will be repeated

negative reinforcement

a neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing after repeated pairing with other reinforcers

secondary reinforcement

for example, salary raises, promotions, awards, bonuses, good grades, and candy

positive reinforcement

examples of this type of reinforcement are turning on one's air conditioner to terminate heat or getting out of bed to turn off a faucet to avoid listening to the annoying "drip, drip, drip."

negative reinforcement

a reward or pleasant consequence that follows a response and increases the probability that the response will be repeated

positive reinforcement

for example, food, water, sleep, sex, and the termination of pain

primary reinforcer

for example, attention from others is a powerful type of this reinforcer

secondary reinforcer

a reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning

primary reinforcer

TRUE OR FALSE | punishment is roughly the same as negative reinforcement

TRUE OR FALSE | punishment lowers the probability of a response

TRUE OR FALSE | unlike punishment, negative reinforcement increases the probability of the desired response

TRUE OR FALSE | punishment can be accomplished by the addition of an unpleasant stimulus or by the removal of a pleasant stimulus

TRUE OR FALSE | "grounding" can only be used as a method of punishment

TRUE OR FALSE | withhold affection and attention are examples of unpleasant stimulus

TRUE OR FALSE | scolding, criticism or a prison sentence are examples of removal of a pleasant stimulus

The process of generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery occur in both ____________ and __________ conditioning

classical | operant

In classical conditioning, the focus is on what ____________ the response. In operant conditioning, the focus is on what ______________ the response.

precedes | follows

Generally, in classical conditioning, the subject is ________ and responds to the _______________ rather than acting upon it. In operant conditioning, the subject is _____________ and ___________ on the environment.

passive environment active operates

According to Albert Bandura, many of our behaviours or responses are acquired through _______________ learning

observational

True or false? A parent with an extreme fear of the dentist or of thunderstorms might serve as a model for these fears

True or false? Inhibitions cannot be strengthened through observation learning. The vast majority of people must experience the unfortunate consequences of dangerous behaviour in order to avoid it in the future.

True or false? Memory failure can result from the failure of encoding, storage or retrieval

The memory process of locating and returning stored information to the conscious state is referred to as: a) encoding b) procedural encoding c) storage d) retrieval

d) retrieval

According to the Atkinson-Shirrifrin model, there are three different memory systems: _____________, ______________, and _______________.

sensory short-term long-term

As information comes in through our senses, virtually everything we see, hear, fee, or otherwise sense, is held in ___________ memory but only for the briefest period of time.

sensory

Sensory memory normally holds ___________ images for a fraction of a second and holds __________ for about _____ seconds. Sensory memory normally holds visual images for a fraction of a second and holds sounds for about 2 seconds.

visual sounds 2

An usher points out a seat to Paul in a darkened theatre by moving a flashlight in a rectangular motion. Paul sees the form of rectangle because images from the flashlight are being briefly stored in his: a) semantic memory b) short-term memory c) photographic memory d) sensory memory

d) sensory memory

We use __________-term memory (STM) when we carry on a conversation, solve a problem or look up a telephone number and remember it just long enough to dial it.

short

Working memory is another term for: a) iconic memory b) semantic memory c) elaborative memory d) short-term memory

d) short-term memory

Short-term memory usually codes information according to __________ and can also hold visual images, and store information in _________ form (i.e., according to meaning).

sound | semantic

In the ____________ memory, the stimulus tends to fade significantly after 20-30 seconds if it is not repeated. a) iconic and echo b) sensory c) long-term d) short-term

d) short-term

Short-term memory's capacity is about ____________ different items or bits of information at one time a) 7 (plus or minus 2) b) 7 (plus or minus 1) c) 10 (plus or minus 2) d) 10 (plus or minus 1)

a) 7 (plus or minus 2)

occurs when short-term memory is filled to capacity

DISPLACEMENT

can be viewed as a kind of mental workplace that temporarily holds incoming information from sensory memory or information retrieved from long-term memory in order to perform some conscious cognitive activity.

WORKING MEMORY

a very useful technique for increasing the capacity of short-term memory

CHUNKING

the act of purposely repeating information to maintain it in short-term memory or to transfer it to long-term memory

REHEARSAL

in this process, each incoming item pushes out an existing item, which is then forgotten

DISPLACEMENT

it is an erasable mental blackboard that allows you to hold briefly in your mind and manipulate the information, whether it be word, menu prices, or a map of your surroundings

WORKING MEMORY

There are no known limits to the storage capacity of _________-term memory

long

A number of experts believe that there are 2 main subsystems within long-term memory - ___________ memory and ____________ memory

declarative | non-declarative

also called implicit memory

non-declarative memory

the part of declarative memory that contains the memory of events we have experienced personally

EPISODIC MEMORY

the part of declarative memory that contains our memory for general knowledge and is made up of objective facts and information

SEMANTIC MEMORY

also called explicit memory

DECLARATIVE MEMORY

the relatively permanent memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity

LONG-TERM MEMORY

the subsystem within long-term memory that stores facts, information, and personal life experiences

DECLARATIVE MEMORY

the subsystem within long-term memory that consists of skills acquired through repetitive practice, habits and simple classically conditioned responses

NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY

this memory system holds all the knowledge we have accumulated, the skills we have acquired, and the memories of our past experiences

LONG-TERM MEMORY

it is our mental dictionary or encyclopaedia of stored knowledge

SEMANTIC MEMORY

this type of memory encompasses motor skills, such as dance movements, which - once learned - can be carried out little or no conscious effort

NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY

large capacity; short duration

SENSORY MEMORY

virtually unlimited capacity; long duration

LONG-TERM MEMORY

very limited capacity; short duration

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

playing tennis

non-declarative memory

remembering your high school graduation

EPISODIC MEMORY

deciding what you will do tomorrow

WORKING MEMORY

naming all the premiers of the provinces

SEMANTIC MEMORY

Psychologist have used 3 main methods of measuring memory: recall, recognition, and the _____________ method

relearning

measuring retention in terms of time or learning trails saved in relearning material compared with the time required to learn it originally

RELEARNING METHOD

a measure of retention that requires one to remember material without the help of retrieval cues, as in an essay test

RECALL

a measure of retention that requires on to identify material as familiar, or as having been encountered before

RECOGNITION

any stimulus or bit of information that aids in the retrieval of particular information from long-term memory

RETRIEVAL CUE

these tasks are usually the most difficult

RECALL

they are the easiest type of memory tasks

RECOGNITION

Multiple choice questions such as this one measure ____________ memory tasks a) recall b) recognition c) relearning d) saving

b) recognition

identifying a suspect in a line-up

RECOGNITION

answering a fill-in-th-blank question on a test

RECALL

having to study less for a comprehensive final exam than for the sum of the previous exams

RELEARNING

answering questions like the ones above

RECOGNITION

forgetting resulting from material never having been put into long-term memory

ENCODING FAILURE

any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a permanent memory from forming

CONSOLIDATION FAILURE

a theory of forgetting that holds that the memory trace, if not used, disappears with the passage of time

DECAY THEORY

the cause of memory loss that occurs when information or associations stored either before or after a given memory hinder our ability to remember it

INTERFERENCE

forgetting through suppression or repression in order to protect oneself from material that is too painful, anxiety-or-guilt-producing, or otherwise unpleasant

MOTIVATED FORGETTING

the type of forgetting where we are certain we know something but we are not able to retrieve the information when we need it

RETRIEVAL FAILURE

the tendency to recall the beginning and ending items in a sequence better than the middle items

serial position effect

the tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle of the sequence

recency effect

the tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle of the sequence

primacy effect

The poorer recall of information in the middle of sequence occurs because that information is no longer in _______-term memory and has not yet been placed in _________-term memory.

short | long

Some research has revealed that we tend to recall information ____________ when we are in the same ____________ - the same environmental context - as when the information was originally ___________

better location encoded

organizing material to be learned is a tremendous aid to memory because we tend to retrieve information from long-term memory according to the way we have organized it for storage

ORGANIZATION

practicing or studying material beyond the point where it can be repeated once without error

OVERLEARNING

spacing studying over several different sessions generally is more effective than massed practice - learning in one long practice session without rest periods

SPACED VS. MASSED PRACTICE

active learning - reading a paragraph and then practice recalling what you have just read - is much more effective than rereading

active learning vs. rereading

When studying for an exam, it is best to spend: a) more time reciting than rereading. b) more time rereading than reciting c) equal time rereading and reciting d) all of the time reciting rather than rereading.

d) all of the time reciting rather than rereading.

Material that is ________________, is remembered better and longer, and it is more resistant to ______________ and stress-related ________________.

overlearned interference forgetting

___________ is to inherit (heredity) , as ____________ is to environment.

Nature | nurture

What field of research investigates the relative effects of heredity and environment on behaviour and ability? a) genetics b) behavioural genetics c) biology d) physiology

b) behavioural genetics

Studies have found a stronger relationship between IQ scores of adopted children and parents than their parents: a) adoptive; grand- b) biological; grand- c) biological; adoptive d) adoptive; biological

c) biological; adoptive

The best way to assess the relative contributions of heredity and environment is to: a) compare identical and fraternal twins. b) study identical twins who have been separated at birth and raised apart. c) study fraternal twins who have been separated at birth and raised apart. d) study children who were adopted at birth by comparing them to their biological and adoptive parents.

b) study identical twins who have been separated at birth and raised apart.

Twin studies suggest that environment is a stronger factor than heredity in shaping IQ differences. a) True b) False

Scores on tests of emotional intelligence predict both ___________ and ____________ success.

academic | social

There is general agreement that at least two tools are commonly used when we think: _____________ and _____________.

images | concepts

An example that embodies the most common and typical features of a particular concept

Prototype

A label that represents a class or group of objects, people, or events sharing common characteristics or attributes.

concept

A child mistakenly identifies some object/concept and the parent points out that this is a "non-example" of the object/concept.

negative instances

The individual instances of a concept that we have stored in memory from our own experience.

exemplars

The representation in the mind of a sensory experience - visual, auditory, gustatory, motor, olfactory or tactile

imagery

We acquire many simple concepts through experiences with examples of the concept.

positive instances

Some theorists maintain that we approach concept formation in an active and orderly way; others point out we learn a concept from a formal definition or from a formal classification system.

Systematic/formal approaches

Our images are generally as vivid as the real thing. a) True b) False

A stork is an exemplar of the concept "bird". a) True b) False

Which of the following is guaranteed, if properly applied, to result in the correct answer to a problem? a) Formulas used in mathematics and other sciences. b) The systematic exploration for every possible solution to a problem until the correct one is reached. c) A computer, programmed to provide an accurate solution after millions of possible solutions were tried in a few seconds. d) All of the above.

d) All of the above.

Which of the following is an example of an algorithm? a) Formulas used in mathematics and other sciences. b) The systematic exploration for every possible solution to a problem until the correct one is reached. c) A computer, programmed to provide an accurate solution after millions of possible solutions were tried in a few seconds. d) All of the above.

d) All of the above.

A problem-solving method that does not guarantee success, but offers a promising way to attack a problem and arrive at a solution.

HEURISTIC

A heuristic strategy in which a person discovers the steps needed to solve a problem by defining the desired goal and then work backward to the current condition.

WORKING BACKWARD

We use this technique to eliminate useless steps and take the shortest possible path toward a solution

HEURISTIC

A heuristic problem-solving strategy in which the current position is compared with the desired goal, and a series of steps are formulated and taken to close the gap between them.

MEANS-END ANALYSIS

In this approach, sometimes called the "backward search", we start with the solution - a known condition - and work our way backward through the problem.

WORKING BACKWARD

In this approach, many large and complex problems must be broken down into smaller steps or sub-problems

MEANS-END ANALYSIS

The tendency to view an object in terms of its familiar usage is defined as: a) Mental set b) Incubation c) Functional fixedness d) Algorithmic perception

a) Mental set

Using a mental set to solve a problem refers to our tendency to: a) stand back from a problem b) use set procedures that guarantee success c) use techniques that worked in the past d) use means-end analysis

c) use techniques that worked in the past

One characteristic of good problem-solvers is the reliance on mental set. a) True b) False

John uses a wastebasket to keep a door from closing. In solving his problem, he was not hindered by: a) a heuristic b) an algorithm c) functional fixedness d) mental set

c) functional fixedness

Because of _____________ ____________ , we often do not consider using familiar objects in new and creative ways.

FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS

Not surprisingly, the same people who are subject to __________ __________ are also more likely to have trouble with _____________ ____________ when they attempt to solve problems.

mental set | FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS

_____________ can be thought of as the ability to produce original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problems.

CREATIVITY

According to psychologist, JP Guilford, who studied creativity for several decades, creative thinkers are proficient in __________ _______________ .

divergent thinking

Divergent thinkers unfortunately cannot conceive of novel or original ideas that involve the combination and synthesis of unusual associations that lead to an abundant quantity of ideas. a) True b) False

All creative thought is _____________ , but not all divergent thought is _____________ .

DIVERGENT | CREATIVE