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PS1044 - INTRO TO PSYCH > TEST 2 (UNITS 5 - 7) > Flashcards

TEST 2 (UNITS 5 - 7) Flashcards

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1
Q

any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds

A

STIMULUS

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2
Q

a relatively permanent change in behaviour, capability or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury or maturation

A

LEARNING

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3
Q

a process through which a response previously made only to a specific stimulus is made to another stimulus that has been paired repeatedly with the original stimulus

A

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

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4
Q

a stimulus that elicits a specific response without prior learning; eg. food

A

UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS

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5
Q

a response that is invariably elicited by the unconditioned stimulus without prior learning; eg. salivation in response to food

A

UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE

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6
Q

a neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elects a conditioned response; eg. the tone

A

CONDITIONED STIMULUS

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7
Q

a response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus; eg. salivation in response to the tone

A

CONDITIONED RESPONSE

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8
Q

DEFINITION: the weakening and often eventual disappearance of learned response, by repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus

EXAMPLE:

A

EXTINCTION

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9
Q

DEFINITION: the reappearance of an extinguished response (in a weaker form) when an organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following a rest period.

EXAMPLE:

A

SPONTANEOUS RECOVERY

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10
Q

DEFINITION: in classical conditioning, the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus

EXAMPLE: a child attacked by a dog can easily develop a long-lasting fear of all dogs

A

GENERALIZATION

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11
Q

DEFINITION: the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the conditioned response occurs only to the original conditioned stimulus but not to similar stimuli

EXAMPLE: this ability has survival value in that we know the difference between a rattlesnake and a garter snake

A

DISCRIMINATION

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12
Q

DEFINITION: occurs when a neutral stimulus is paired with an existing conditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it, and gains the power to elicit the same conditioned response

EXAMPLE: Suppose that after Pavlov conditioned the dogs to salivate to a tone, he presented a light (neutral stimulus) immediately before the tone a number of times. The light would become associated with the tone, and the dogs would learn to give the salivation response to the light alone.

A

higher-order conditioning

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13
Q

PRINCIPLE OF WHAT?
a type of learning in which the consequences of behaviour tend to modify that behaviour in the future (behaviour that is reinforced tends to be repeated; behaviour that is ignored or punished is less likely to be repeated).

A

OPERANT CONDITIONING

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14
Q

PRINCIPLE OF WHAT?
the consequences of behaviour are manipulated to increase or decrease the frequency of a response or to shape an entirely new response.

A

OPERANT CONDITIONING

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15
Q

DEFINITION: technique that reinforces any movement in the direction of the desired response, and gradually guiding the responses closer and closer to the ultimate goal

EXAMPLE: eg. Even though the B that Billy wrote looked more like a D, his teacher, Mrs. Chen, praised him because it was better than his previous attempts. Mrs. Chen is using a procedure called shaping.

A

SHAPING

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16
Q

POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT?
a reward or pleasant consequence that follows a response and increases the probability that the response will be repeated

  • eg. salary raises, promotions, awards, bonuses, good grades, and candy
A

POSITIVE

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17
Q

POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT? the termination of an unpleasant stimulus after a response in order to increase the probability that the response will be repeated

  • eg. turning on one’s air conditioner to terminate heat or getting out of bed to turn off a faucet to avoid listening to the annoying “drip, drip, drip.”
A

NEGATIVE

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18
Q

Differentiate between primary reinforcers and secondary reinforcers and examples of each kind

A

primary reinforcer: reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning; EG. food, water, sleep, sex, and the termination of pain

secondary reinforcer: neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing after repeated pairing with other reinforcers; EG. attention from others is a powerful type of this reinforcer

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19
Q

4 factors that influence operant conditioning:

A
  1. magnitude of reinforcement
  2. immediacy of reinforcement
  3. level of motivation
  4. schedule of reinforcement
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20
Q

3 factors that influence the effectiveness of punishment

A
  1. timing of application
  2. intensity of application
  3. consistency of application
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21
Q

Compare and contrast classical and operant conditioning:

A

In classical conditioning, the focus is on what precedes the response. In operant conditioning, the focus is on what follows the response.

  • Generally, in classical conditioning, the subject is passive and responds to the environment rather than acting upon it. In operant conditioning, the subject is active and operates on the environment.
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22
Q

learning from using reasoning, intuition and perception

A

COGNITIVE LEARNING

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23
Q

Discuss the factors which determine whether or not modelling or observational learning will occur

A

?

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24
Q

3 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN THE ACT OF REMEMBERING

A
  1. ENCODING
  2. STORAGE
  3. RETRIEVAL
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25
Q

transforming information into a form that can be stored in short-term or long-term memory

A

ENCODING

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26
Q

the act of maintaining information in memory

A

STORAGE

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27
Q

the act of bringing to mind material that has been stored in memory

A

RETRIEVAL

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28
Q

As information comes in through our senses, virtually everything we see, hear, fee, or otherwise sense, is held in sensory memory but only for the briefest period of time.

Sensory memory normally holds visual images for a fraction of a second and holds sounds for about 2 seconds.

A

SENSORY MEMORY

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29
Q

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY?

very limited capacity; short duration

A

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

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30
Q

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY?

capacity is about 7 (plus or minus 2) different items or bits of information at one time

A

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

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31
Q

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY?
used when we carry on a conversation, solve a problem or look up a telephone number and remember it just long enough to dial it.

A

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

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32
Q

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY?

“Working memory”

A

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

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33
Q

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY?
codes information according to sound and can also hold visual images, and store information in semantic form (i.e., according to meaning).

A

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

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34
Q

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY?

stimulus tends to fade significantly after 20-30 seconds if it is not repeated.

A

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

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35
Q

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY?

virtually unlimited capacity; long duration

A

LONG-TERM MEMORY

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36
Q

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY?

no known limits to the storage capacity

A

LONG-TERM MEMORY

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37
Q

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY?

holds all the knowledge we have accumulated, the skills we have acquired, and the memories of our past experiences

A

LONG-TERM MEMORY

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38
Q

SHORT-TERM OR LONG-TERM MEMORY?

the relatively permanent memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity

A

LONG-TERM MEMORY

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39
Q

EXPLAIN HOW DISPLACEMENT AND REHEARSAL AFFECT SHORT-TERM MEMORY

A

displacement: occurs when short-term memory is filled to capacity; each incoming item pushes out an existing item, which is then forgotten

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40
Q

2 main subsystems within long-term memory:

A

declarative memory and non-declarative memory

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41
Q

DECLARATIVE MEMORY or NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY?

“explicit memory”; the subsystem within long-term memory that stores facts, information, and personal life experiences

A

DECLARATIVE MEMORY

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42
Q

DECLARATIVE MEMORY or NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY?
“implicit memory”; the subsystem within long-term memory that consists of skills acquired through repetitive practice, habits and simple classically conditioned responses

A

NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY

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43
Q

a single-memory system model in which retention depends on how deeply information is processed

A

LEVELS-OF-PROCESSING MODEL

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44
Q

6 CAUSES OF FORGETTING

A
  1. encoding failure
  2. consolidation failure
  3. decay theory
  4. interference
  5. motivated forgetting
  6. retrieval failure
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45
Q

CAUSE OF FORGETTING: forgetting resulting from material never having been put into long-term memory

A

ENCODING FAILURE

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46
Q

CAUSE OF FORGETTING: any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a permanent memory from forming

A

CONSOLIDATION FAILURE

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47
Q

CAUSE OF FORGETTING: a theory of forgetting that holds that the memory trace, if not used, disappears with the passage of time

A

DECAY THEORY

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48
Q

CAUSE OF FORGETTING: the cause of memory loss that occurs when information or associations stored either before or after a given memory hinder our ability to remember it

A

INTERFERENCE

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49
Q

CAUSE OF FORGETTING: forgetting through suppression or repression in order to protect oneself from material that is too painful, anxiety-or-guilt-producing, or otherwise unpleasant

A

MOTIVATED FORGETTING

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50
Q

CAUSE OF FORGETTING: the type of forgetting where we are certain we know something but we are not able to retrieve the information when we need it

A

RETRIEVAL FAILURE

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51
Q

IDENTIFY SOME FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION

A
  • we tend to recall information better if we are in the same internal state as when the information was encoded
  • we tend to recall information better when we are in the same location - the same environmental context - as when the information was originally encoded
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52
Q

the tendency to recall information better if one is in the same pharmacological or psychological (mood) state as when the information was encoded.

A

state-dependent memory effect

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53
Q

4 STUDY HABITS THAT CAN AID MEMORY

A
  1. organization
  2. overlearning
  3. spaced vs. massed practice
  4. active learning vs. rereading
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54
Q

STUDY HABIT: organizing material to be learned is a tremendous aid to memory because we tend to retrieve information from long-term memory according to the way we have organized it for storage

A

ORGANIZATION

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55
Q

STUDY HABIT: practicing or studying material beyond the point where it can be repeated once without error

A

OVERLEARNING

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56
Q

STUDY HABIT: spacing studying over several different sessions generally is more effective than massed practice - learning in one long practice session without rest periods

A

SPACED VS. MASSED PRACTICE

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57
Q

STUDY HABIT: reading a paragraph and then practice recalling what you have just read - is much more effective than rereading

A

ACTIVE LEARNING VS. REREADING

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58
Q

an individual’s “ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to the environment, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, and to overcome obstacles by taking thought”

A

INTELLIGENCE

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59
Q

2 TYPES OF INTELLIGENCE:

A
  1. CRYSTALLIZED

2. FLUID

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60
Q

Verbal ability and accumulated knowledge.

A

CRYSTALLIZED INTELLIGENCE

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61
Q

Abstract reasoning and mental flexibility.

A

FLUID INTELLIGENCE

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62
Q

8 intelligences as outlined by Howard Gardner:

A
  1. Linguistic
  2. Logical-mathematical
  3. Spatial
  4. Bodily-kinesthetic
  5. Musical
  6. Interpersonal
  7. Intrapersonal
  8. Naturalistic
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63
Q

DESCRIBE BINET’S ROLE IN INTELLIGENCE TESTING

A
  • published the intelligence scale

- Intelligence Scale was an immediate success in most Western countries

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64
Q

4 components of IQ test:

A
  1. Verbal Reasoning
  2. Quantitative reasoning
  3. Abstract visual reasoning
  4. Short-term memory
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65
Q

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN THE WECHSLER TEST FROM THE STANFORD-BINET TEST

A
  • Wechsler test contains both verbal and performance subtests, which yield separate verbal and performance IQ scores as well as an overall IQ score.
  • Wechsler test is a departure from the Stanford-Binet, which yields just one IQ score.
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66
Q

DISTINGUISH BETWEEN GROUP AND INDIVIDUAL INTELLIGENCE TESTS

A

individual intelligence tests: expensive, time consuming and administered to one individual at a time by a psychologist.

group intelligence tests: can be used when large numbers of people must be tested in a short period of time on a limited budget.

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67
Q

DESCRIBE THE PATTERN OF DISTRIBUTION OF IQ SCORES OBSERVED IN THE GENERAL POPULATION

A
  • When large populations are measured on mental characteristics such as intelligence or on physical characteristics, the tests scores or results usually conform to the distribution known as the normal curve
  • Most of the scores cluster around the mean (average). The farther the scores deviates, or move away, from the mean, above or below, the fewer people there are.
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68
Q

STATE THE DIVIDING LINE BETWEEN NORMAL INTELLIGENCE AND DEVELOPMENTAL DISABILITY

A

BELOW 70 is THE RANGE OF MENTAL DISABILITY

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69
Q

EXPLAIN WHAT IQ SCORES PREDICT

A

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT AND SUCCESS IN SCHOOL.

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70
Q

EXPLAIN PROBLEMS WITH IQ TESTS

A

NATURE VS NURTURE CONTROVERSY

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71
Q

DEFINE NATURE-NURTURE CONTROVERSY AS IT PERTAINS TO INTELLIGENCE

A

Studies have found a stronger relationship between IQ scores of adopted children and biological parents than their adoptive parents

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72
Q

________________ is to inherit (heredity) , as _______________ is to environment

A

NATURE, NURTURE

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73
Q

WHAT KIND OF INTELLIGENCE IS THIS?

  • refers to a set of capabilities that are separate from IQ
  • include an awareness of and an ability to manage one’s own emotions,
  • ability to motivate oneself
  • empathy
  • ability to handle relationships successfully.
A

EMOTIONAL

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74
Q
  • most common type of imagery;

- the representation in the mind of a sensory experience - visual, auditory, gustatory, motor, olfactory or tactile

A

MENTAL IMAGERY

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75
Q

DEFINE THE TERMS CONCEPT AND CONCEPT FORMATION AND EXPLAIN HOW THEY AID THOUGHT PROCESSES

A

?

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76
Q

3 PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUES

A
  1. Trial and Error
  2. ALGORITHMS
  3. Heuristics
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77
Q

PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE: occurs when we try one solution after another, in no particular order, until by chance we hit upon the answer

A

TRIAL AND ERROR

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78
Q

PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE:

  • Formulas used in mathematics and other sciences.
  • The systematic exploration for every possible solution to a problem until the correct one is reached
  • A computer, programmed to provide an accurate solution after millions of possible solutions were tried in a few seconds.
A

ALGORITHMS

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79
Q

PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE:
* A problem-solving method that does not guarantee success, but offers a promising way to attack a problem and arrive at a solution.

A

HEURISTICS

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80
Q

EXPLAIN HOW MENTAL SET AND FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS BLOCK PROBLEM-SOLVING

A

Sometimes the difficulty in problem solving lies not with the problem but with ourselves. Not surprisingly, the same people who are subject to mental set are also more likely to have trouble with functional fixedness when they attempt to solve problems

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81
Q

DEFINITION:

  • tendency to view an object in terms of its familiar usage is defined as:
  • refers to our tendency to use techniques that worked in the past
A

MENTAL SET

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82
Q

DEFINITION: not consider using familiar objects in new and creative ways

A

FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS

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83
Q

EXPLAIN THE RELATIONSHIP OF CREATIVITY TO DIVERGENT THINKING

A
  • creative thinkers are proficient in divergent thinking

- all creative thought is divergent, but not all divergent thought is creative .

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84
Q

Producing one or more possible ideas, answers, or solutions to a problem rather than a single, correct response.

A

DIVERGENT THINKING

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85
Q

can be thought of as the ability to produce original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problems

A

CREATIVITY

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86
Q

DESCRIBE HOW CREATIVITY RELATES TO INTELLIGENCE

A

Research indicates that there is only a weak to moderate correlation between creativity and IQ.

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87
Q

Any event or object in the environment to which an organism responds is ________

a) learning
b) a stimulus
c) a reflex
d) all of the above

A

b) a stimulus

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88
Q

_____________ is a relatively permanent change in behaviour, capability or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury or maturation

A

Learning

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89
Q

Ivan Pavlov, a Nobel prize-winning physiologist studied which of the following phenomena?

a) maturation
b) animal cognition
c) operant condition
d) classical conditioning

A

d) classical conditioning

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90
Q

Little Tammy is frightened by thunder and cries when she hears it. During a season of frequent electrical storms, thunder is always preceded by light night. Now Tammy cries as soon as she sees lightning. In this example, the conditioned response is:

a) thunder
b) lightning
c) crying at the sound of thunder
d) crying at the sound of lightning

A

d) crying at the sound of lightning

91
Q

A puff of air on the surface of your eye will make you blink reflexively. If you hear a buzzer repeatedly just before air is puffed into your eye, eventually you will blink as soon as you hear the buzzer. In this example, the unconditioned stimulus is the:

a) eye blink response to the buzzer
b) buzzer
c) puff of air
d) eye blink response to the puff of air

A

d) eye blink response to the puff of air

92
Q

in classical conditioning, the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus

A

generalization

93
Q

the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the conditioned response occurs only to the original conditioned stimulus but not to similar stimuli

A

discrimination

94
Q

the reappearance of an extinguished response (in a weaker form) when an organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following a rest period.

A

spontaneous recovery

95
Q

the weakening and often eventual disappearance of learned response, by repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus

A

extinction

96
Q

through this process, a child attacked by a dog can easily develop a long-lasting fear of all dogs

A

generalization

97
Q

this ability has survival value in that we know the difference between a rattlesnake and a garter snake

A

discrimination

98
Q

In operant conditioning, the _____________ of ______________ are manipulated to increase or decrease the _____________ of a response or to ___________ an entirely new response.

A

consequences of behaviour
frequency
shape

99
Q

In the psychology of learning, any event or object that strengthens or increases the probability of the response it follows is known as:

a) the law of effect
b) a reinforcer
c) a punishment
d) an aversive stimulus

A

b) a reinforcer

100
Q

Behaviours that are __________ tend to be ______________. Behaviours that are __________ or punished are less likely to be ____________.

A

reinforced
repeated
ignored
repeated

101
Q

The technique that reinforces any movement in the direction of the desired response, and gradually guiding the responses closer and closer to the ultimate goal is called:

a) training
b) approximating
c) shaping
d) moulding

A

c) shaping

102
Q

Even though the B that Billy wrote looked more like a D, his teacher, Mrs. Chen, praised him because it was better than his previous attempts. Mrs. Chen is using a procedure called _____________.

A

shaping

103
Q

A ______________ is anything that ___________ a response or increases the probability that the response will occur. Reinforcement is a key concept in operant conditioning. There are 2 types of reinforcement, __________ and __________

A

reinforcer
strengthens
positive
negative

104
Q

the termination of an unpleasant stimulus after a response in order to increase the probability that the response will be repeated

A

negative reinforcement

105
Q

a neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing after repeated pairing with other reinforcers

A

secondary reinforcement

106
Q

for example, salary raises, promotions, awards, bonuses, good grades, and candy

A

positive reinforcement

107
Q

examples of this type of reinforcement are turning on one’s air conditioner to terminate heat or getting out of bed to turn off a faucet to avoid listening to the annoying “drip, drip, drip.”

A

negative reinforcement

108
Q

a reward or pleasant consequence that follows a response and increases the probability that the response will be repeated

A

positive reinforcement

109
Q

for example, food, water, sleep, sex, and the termination of pain

A

primary reinforcer

110
Q

for example, attention from others is a powerful type of this reinforcer

A

secondary reinforcer

111
Q

a reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning

A

primary reinforcer

112
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

punishment is roughly the same as negative reinforcement

A

F

113
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

punishment lowers the probability of a response

A

T

114
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

unlike punishment, negative reinforcement increases the probability of the desired response

A

T

115
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

punishment can be accomplished by the addition of an unpleasant stimulus or by the removal of a pleasant stimulus

A

T

116
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

“grounding” can only be used as a method of punishment

A

F

117
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

withhold affection and attention are examples of unpleasant stimulus

A

F

118
Q

TRUE OR FALSE

scolding, criticism or a prison sentence are examples of removal of a pleasant stimulus

A

F

119
Q

The process of generalization, discrimination, extinction, and spontaneous recovery occur in both ____________ and __________ conditioning

A

classical

operant

120
Q

In classical conditioning, the focus is on what ____________ the response. In operant conditioning, the focus is on what ______________ the response.

A

precedes

follows

121
Q

Generally, in classical conditioning, the subject is ________ and responds to the _______________ rather than acting upon it. In operant conditioning, the subject is _____________ and ___________ on the environment.

A

passive
environment
active
operates

122
Q

According to Albert Bandura, many of our behaviours or responses are acquired through _______________ learning

A

observational

123
Q

True or false? A parent with an extreme fear of the dentist or of thunderstorms might serve as a model for these fears

A

T

124
Q

True or false? Inhibitions cannot be strengthened through observation learning. The vast majority of people must experience the unfortunate consequences of dangerous behaviour in order to avoid it in the future.

A

F

125
Q

True or false? Memory failure can result from the failure of encoding, storage or retrieval

A

T

126
Q

The memory process of locating and returning stored information to the conscious state is referred to as:

a) encoding
b) procedural encoding
c) storage
d) retrieval

A

d) retrieval

127
Q

According to the Atkinson-Shirrifrin model, there are three different memory systems: _____________, ______________, and _______________.

A

sensory
short-term
long-term

128
Q

As information comes in through our senses, virtually everything we see, hear, fee, or otherwise sense, is held in ___________ memory but only for the briefest period of time.

A

sensory

129
Q

Sensory memory normally holds ___________ images for a fraction of a second and holds __________ for about _____ seconds.

Sensory memory normally holds visual images for a fraction of a second and holds sounds for about 2 seconds.

A

visual
sounds
2

130
Q

An usher points out a seat to Paul in a darkened theatre by moving a flashlight in a rectangular motion. Paul sees the form of rectangle because images from the flashlight are being briefly stored in his:

a) semantic memory
b) short-term memory
c) photographic memory
d) sensory memory

A

d) sensory memory

131
Q

We use __________-term memory (STM) when we carry on a conversation, solve a problem or look up a telephone number and remember it just long enough to dial it.

A

short

132
Q

Working memory is another term for:

a) iconic memory
b) semantic memory
c) elaborative memory
d) short-term memory

A

d) short-term memory

133
Q

Short-term memory usually codes information according to __________ and can also hold visual images, and store information in _________ form (i.e., according to meaning).

A

sound

semantic

134
Q

In the ____________ memory, the stimulus tends to fade significantly after 20-30 seconds if it is not repeated.

a) iconic and echo
b) sensory
c) long-term
d) short-term

A

d) short-term

135
Q

Short-term memory’s capacity is about ____________ different items or bits of information at one time

a) 7 (plus or minus 2)
b) 7 (plus or minus 1)
c) 10 (plus or minus 2)
d) 10 (plus or minus 1)

A

a) 7 (plus or minus 2)

136
Q

occurs when short-term memory is filled to capacity

A

DISPLACEMENT

137
Q

can be viewed as a kind of mental workplace that temporarily holds incoming information from sensory memory or information retrieved from long-term memory in order to perform some conscious cognitive activity.

A

WORKING MEMORY

138
Q

a very useful technique for increasing the capacity of short-term memory

A

CHUNKING

139
Q

the act of purposely repeating information to maintain it in short-term memory or to transfer it to long-term memory

A

REHEARSAL

140
Q

in this process, each incoming item pushes out an existing item, which is then forgotten

A

DISPLACEMENT

141
Q

it is an erasable mental blackboard that allows you to hold briefly in your mind and manipulate the information, whether it be word, menu prices, or a map of your surroundings

A

WORKING MEMORY

142
Q

There are no known limits to the storage capacity of _________-term memory

A

long

143
Q

A number of experts believe that there are 2 main subsystems within long-term memory - ___________ memory and ____________ memory

A

declarative

non-declarative

144
Q

also called implicit memory

A

non-declarative memory

145
Q

the part of declarative memory that contains the memory of events we have experienced personally

A

EPISODIC MEMORY

146
Q

the part of declarative memory that contains our memory for general knowledge and is made up of objective facts and information

A

SEMANTIC MEMORY

147
Q

also called explicit memory

A

DECLARATIVE MEMORY

148
Q

the relatively permanent memory system with a virtually unlimited capacity

A

LONG-TERM MEMORY

149
Q

the subsystem within long-term memory that stores facts, information, and personal life experiences

A

DECLARATIVE MEMORY

150
Q

the subsystem within long-term memory that consists of skills acquired through repetitive practice, habits and simple classically conditioned responses

A

NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY

151
Q

this memory system holds all the knowledge we have accumulated, the skills we have acquired, and the memories of our past experiences

A

LONG-TERM MEMORY

152
Q

it is our mental dictionary or encyclopaedia of stored knowledge

A

SEMANTIC MEMORY

153
Q

this type of memory encompasses motor skills, such as dance movements, which - once learned - can be carried out little or no conscious effort

A

NON-DECLARATIVE MEMORY

154
Q

large capacity; short duration

A

SENSORY MEMORY

155
Q

virtually unlimited capacity; long duration

A

LONG-TERM MEMORY

156
Q

very limited capacity; short duration

A

SHORT-TERM MEMORY

157
Q

playing tennis

A

non-declarative memory

158
Q

remembering your high school graduation

A

EPISODIC MEMORY

159
Q

deciding what you will do tomorrow

A

WORKING MEMORY

160
Q

naming all the premiers of the provinces

A

SEMANTIC MEMORY

161
Q

Psychologist have used 3 main methods of measuring memory: recall, recognition, and the _____________ method

A

relearning

162
Q

measuring retention in terms of time or learning trails saved in relearning material compared with the time required to learn it originally

A

RELEARNING METHOD

163
Q

a measure of retention that requires one to remember material without the help of retrieval cues, as in an essay test

A

RECALL

164
Q

a measure of retention that requires on to identify material as familiar, or as having been encountered before

A

RECOGNITION

165
Q

any stimulus or bit of information that aids in the retrieval of particular information from long-term memory

A

RETRIEVAL CUE

166
Q

these tasks are usually the most difficult

A

RECALL

167
Q

they are the easiest type of memory tasks

A

RECOGNITION

168
Q

Multiple choice questions such as this one measure ____________ memory tasks

a) recall
b) recognition
c) relearning
d) saving

A

b) recognition

169
Q

identifying a suspect in a line-up

A

RECOGNITION

170
Q

answering a fill-in-th-blank question on a test

A

RECALL

171
Q

having to study less for a comprehensive final exam than for the sum of the previous exams

A

RELEARNING

172
Q

answering questions like the ones above

A

RECOGNITION

173
Q

forgetting resulting from material never having been put into long-term memory

A

ENCODING FAILURE

174
Q

any disruption in the consolidation process that prevents a permanent memory from forming

A

CONSOLIDATION FAILURE

175
Q

a theory of forgetting that holds that the memory trace, if not used, disappears with the passage of time

A

DECAY THEORY

176
Q

the cause of memory loss that occurs when information or associations stored either before or after a given memory hinder our ability to remember it

A

INTERFERENCE

177
Q

forgetting through suppression or repression in order to protect oneself from material that is too painful, anxiety-or-guilt-producing, or otherwise unpleasant

A

MOTIVATED FORGETTING

178
Q

the type of forgetting where we are certain we know something but we are not able to retrieve the information when we need it

A

RETRIEVAL FAILURE

179
Q

the tendency to recall the beginning and ending items in a sequence better than the middle items

A

serial position effect

180
Q

the tendency to recall the last items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle of the sequence

A

recency effect

181
Q

the tendency to recall the first items in a sequence more readily than those in the middle of the sequence

A

primacy effect

182
Q

The poorer recall of information in the middle of sequence occurs because that information is no longer in _______-term memory and has not yet been placed in _________-term memory.

A

short

long

183
Q

Some research has revealed that we tend to recall information ____________ when we are in the same ____________ - the same environmental context - as when the information was originally ___________

A

better
location
encoded

184
Q

organizing material to be learned is a tremendous aid to memory because we tend to retrieve information from long-term memory according to the way we have organized it for storage

A

ORGANIZATION

185
Q

practicing or studying material beyond the point where it can be repeated once without error

A

OVERLEARNING

186
Q

spacing studying over several different sessions generally is more effective than massed practice - learning in one long practice session without rest periods

A

SPACED VS. MASSED PRACTICE

187
Q

active learning - reading a paragraph and then practice recalling what you have just read - is much more effective than rereading

A

active learning vs. rereading

188
Q

When studying for an exam, it is best to spend:

a) more time reciting than rereading.
b) more time rereading than reciting
c) equal time rereading and reciting
d) all of the time reciting rather than rereading.

A

d) all of the time reciting rather than rereading.

189
Q

Material that is ________________, is remembered better and longer, and it is more resistant to ______________ and stress-related ________________.

A

overlearned
interference
forgetting

190
Q

___________ is to inherit (heredity) , as ____________ is to environment.

A

Nature

nurture

191
Q

What field of research investigates the relative effects of heredity and environment on behaviour and ability?

 a) genetics
 b) behavioural genetics
 c) biology
 d) physiology
A

b) behavioural genetics

192
Q

Studies have found a stronger relationship between IQ scores of adopted children and parents than their parents:

 a) adoptive; grand-
 b) biological; grand-
 c) biological; adoptive
 d) adoptive; biological
A

c) biological; adoptive

193
Q

The best way to assess the relative contributions of heredity and environment is to:

a) compare identical and fraternal twins.
b) study identical twins who have been separated at birth and raised apart.
c) study fraternal twins who have been separated at birth and raised apart.
d) study children who were adopted at birth by comparing them to their biological and adoptive parents.

A

b) study identical twins who have been separated at birth and raised apart.

194
Q

Twin studies suggest that environment is a stronger factor than heredity in shaping IQ differences.

 a) True
 b) False
A

T

195
Q

Scores on tests of emotional intelligence predict both ___________ and ____________ success.

A

academic

social

196
Q

There is general agreement that at least two tools are commonly used when we think: _____________ and _____________.

A

images

concepts

197
Q

An example that embodies the most common and typical features of a particular concept

A

Prototype

198
Q

A label that represents a class or group of objects, people, or events sharing common characteristics or attributes.

A

concept

199
Q

A child mistakenly identifies some object/concept and the parent points out that this is a “non-example” of the object/concept.

A

negative instances

200
Q

The individual instances of a concept that we have stored in memory from our own experience.

A

exemplars

201
Q

The representation in the mind of a sensory experience - visual, auditory, gustatory, motor, olfactory or tactile

A

imagery

202
Q

We acquire many simple concepts through experiences with examples of the concept.

A

positive instances

203
Q

Some theorists maintain that we approach concept formation in an active and orderly way; others point out we learn a concept from a formal definition or from a formal classification system.

A

Systematic/formal approaches

204
Q

Our images are generally as vivid as the real thing.

 a) True
 b) False
A

F

205
Q

A stork is an exemplar of the concept “bird”.

 a) True
 b) False
A

T

206
Q

Which of the following is guaranteed, if properly applied, to result in the correct answer to a problem?

 a) Formulas used in mathematics and other sciences.
 b) The systematic exploration for every possible solution to a problem until the correct one is reached.
 c) A computer, programmed to provide an accurate solution after millions of possible solutions were tried in a few seconds.
 d) All of the above.
A

d) All of the above.

207
Q

Which of the following is an example of an algorithm?

 a) Formulas used in mathematics and other sciences.
 b) The systematic exploration for every possible solution to a problem until the correct one is reached.
 c) A computer, programmed to provide an accurate solution after millions of possible solutions were tried in a few seconds.
 d) All of the above.
A

d) All of the above.

208
Q

A problem-solving method that does not guarantee success, but offers a promising way to attack a problem and arrive at a solution.

A

HEURISTIC

209
Q

A heuristic strategy in which a person discovers the steps needed to solve a problem by defining the desired goal and then work backward to the current condition.

A

WORKING BACKWARD

210
Q

We use this technique to eliminate useless steps and take the shortest possible path toward a solution

A

HEURISTIC

211
Q

A heuristic problem-solving strategy in which the current position is compared with the desired goal, and a series of steps are formulated and taken to close the gap between them.

A

MEANS-END ANALYSIS

212
Q

In this approach, sometimes called the “backward search”, we start with the solution - a known condition - and work our way backward through the problem.

A

WORKING BACKWARD

213
Q

In this approach, many large and complex problems must be broken down into smaller steps or sub-problems

A

MEANS-END ANALYSIS

214
Q

The tendency to view an object in terms of its familiar usage is defined as:

 a) Mental set
 b) Incubation
 c) Functional fixedness
 d) Algorithmic perception
A

a) Mental set

215
Q

Using a mental set to solve a problem refers to our tendency to:

a) stand back from a problem
b) use set procedures that guarantee success
c) use techniques that worked in the past
d) use means-end analysis

A

c) use techniques that worked in the past

216
Q

One characteristic of good problem-solvers is the reliance on mental set.

 a) True
 b) False
A

F

217
Q

John uses a wastebasket to keep a door from closing. In solving his problem, he was not hindered by:

 a) a heuristic
 b) an algorithm
 c) functional fixedness
 d) mental set
A

c) functional fixedness

218
Q

Because of _____________ ____________ , we often do not consider using familiar objects in new and creative ways.

A

FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS

219
Q

Not surprisingly, the same people who are subject to __________ __________ are also more likely to have trouble with _____________ ____________ when they attempt to solve problems.

A

mental set

FUNCTIONAL FIXEDNESS

220
Q

_____________ can be thought of as the ability to produce original, appropriate, and valuable ideas and/or solutions to problems.

A

CREATIVITY

221
Q

According to psychologist, JP Guilford, who studied creativity for several decades, creative thinkers are proficient in __________ _______________ .

A

divergent thinking

222
Q

Divergent thinkers unfortunately cannot conceive of novel or original ideas that involve the combination and synthesis of unusual associations that lead to an abundant quantity of ideas.

 a) True
 b) False
A

F

223
Q

All creative thought is _____________ , but not all divergent thought is _____________ .

A

DIVERGENT

CREATIVE

PS1044 - INTRO TO PSYCH (4 decks)

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