Test #3 (Respiratory and Circulatory) Flashcards
The exchange of gases between the atmosphere, blood and body cells
Respiration
The flow of air into the lungs
Inhalation
The flow of air out of the lungs
Exhalation
Exchange of gases across the respiratory membrane
Pulmonary respiration
The structure gasses pass through to move between the alveoli in the lungs and the blood.
Respiratory membrane
The exchange of gases between the blood and tissue cells
Tissue respiration
The metabolic reactions that consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide in the production of ATP
Cellular respiration
Name the six structural divisions of the Respiratory System (also: which are upper and which are lower?)
Nose, pharynx (upper) larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs (lower)
Which two processes are a part of Pulmonary Ventilation?
Inhalation and Exhalation
Functional division of respiratory system responsible for to filtering, warming, and moistening the air, and conducting it into the lungs. Also receives olfactory (smell) stimuli and generates sound for speech.
Conducting Zone
Functional division of respiratory system responsible for gas exchange.
Respiratory Zone
Where in the RS are olfactory receptors held?
The nose
Where in the RS do ciliated cells move the mucous to the throat (pharynx) where it is swallowed and digested?
The nose
A.k.a. the throat
The pharynx
What shape is the pharynx?
Funnel-shaped
Where is the Pharynx situated relative to the nasal cavity and the larynx?
Just behind the nasal cavity and above the larynx
Which structure of the RS functions as a passageway for air and food, as a resonating chamber for sounds and as a housing for the tonsils?
The pharynx
The inferior end of the pharynx opens into the _________ (posteriorly) and _________ (anteriorly)
Esophagus, Larynx
A.k.a. voice box
Larynx
This structure protects the top of the larynx and helps redirect food posteriorly and air anteriorly.
The epiglottis
The larynx connects to the _________ (inferiorly)
Trachea
A.k.a. windpipe
Trachea
Where is the trachea relative to the esophagus?
Anterior
What prevents the trachea from collapsing when we breathe in?
C-shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
The trachea is one of the most important parts of the body for catching “nasty stuff”. How does it do this?
It’s lined with a mucous membrane to filter particulate.
Cilia of the trachea sweep out particulate up to the throat for expectoration and digestion. This is called the
Mucociliary Elevator
At which vertebra does the trachea divide into the right and left primary bronchi (which travel to the right and left lung)?
The fifth thoracic vertebra
The internal ridge where the trachea divides – it is one of the most sensitive areas of the trachea and larynx for triggering a cough reflex.
The carnia
What is the mediastinum, how big is it and where is it located?
The region in the thoracic cavity between the lungs – it extends from the sternum to the vertebrae, from the 1st rib/clavicle to the diaphragm, and is approximately 6 cm wide (it varies).
the top of each lung is the ____
the bottom is the _____
Apex, base
Name the smaller units each bronchus subdivides into (4)
secondary bronchi (3 on right, 2 on left)
tertiary bronchi
bronchioles
terminal bronchioles
What happens as the bronchus divides with regards to smooth muscle and cartilage?
smooth muscle increases, cartilage decreases
Cup-shaped outpouching lined with simple squamous epithelium supported by a thin elastic basement membrane
Alveoli
Two or more alveoli that share a common opening
Alveolar sac
Cells for gas exchange (simple squamous epithelium)
Alveolar cells
Alveolar cells secrete a fluid contains _________, which reduces the surface tension of the fluid which reduces the tendency of alveoli to collapse.
Surfactant
What cells remove dust within alveoli?
Alveolar macrophages
What cells make reticular and elastic fibres within alveoli?
Fibroblasts
Gas exchanges happen through simple diffusion across the alveolar and capillary walls, which together form the _____________
Respiratory membrane
The respiratory membrane comprises the:
▪ alveolar epithelium and its underlying basement
membrane
▪ the blood vessel endothelium and its basement membrane
Most of the oxygen is carried from the lungs to the body tissues bound to ____________
Hemoglobin
Most carbon dioxide is carried in the blood in the form of _________, and some carried attached to _________
Bicarbonate (HCO2)
Carboxyhemoglobin
Each lung is enclosed in, and protected by a double layered serous membrane called the _______________
Pleura Membrane
The layer of the pleural membrane that covers the lungs
Visceral Pleura
The layer of the pleural membrane that covers the inside of the thoracic cavity
Parietal Pleura
The space between the visceral and parietal pleura which contains lubricating fluid
Pleural Cavity
During inhalation, muscle contraction expands the __________ and the ______________
Lungs
Thoracic cage
During inhalation, thoracic volume __________, thoracic pressure _____________, and air rushes ___ to normalize the pressure
Increases
Decreases
In
During exhalation, thoracic volume __________, thoracic pressure _____________, and air rushes ___ to normalize the pressure
Decreases
Increases
Out
During exhalation, muscles relax and the thoracic cage undergoes ____________
Elastic recoil
The largest volume of air that can be brought into the lungs
Forced Vital Capacity (FVC)
The volume of air that can be exhaled in 1 second (after maximal inhalation)
Forced Expiratory Volume (FEV1)
The volume of air in one regular breath
Tidal Volume (VT)
Part of the brain that controls the rhythm and rate of breathing.
The respiratory control centre (in the brain stem)
______________________ detect rising concentrations of CO2 and H+ and respond by increasing ventilation
Central chemoreceptors
Located in the carotid arteries and the arch of the aorta, these respond to rising CO2 and H+ concentrations and/or dropping O2 concentrations and respond by increasing ventilation.
Peripheral Chemoreceptors
How does aging affect the Respiratory System?
▪ airways and tissues become less elastic
▪ chest wall becomes more rigid
▪ this decreases lung capacity
▪ alveolar macrophages are less functional/active
▪ cilia are less functional
▪ this increases the risk of certain respiratory infections (e.g., pneumonia, bronchitis)
What are the three main functions of the cardiovascular system?
Transportation (nutrients, wastes, hormones)
Immunity and Protection (clotting, disease/infection)
Regulation (pH, hormones, fluid levels)
Where is the heart located?
Center of the chest in the medaistinum
Inferior attachment of the heart
DIaphragm
Inferior portion of the heart is the ____
superior portion is the ______
Apex
Base
The mass of organs and tissues that separates the lungs
Mediastinum
Name the four boundaries of the mediastinum
superiorly: first rib
inferiorly: diaphragm
anteriorly: sternum (breastbone)
posteriorly: vertebral column (spine)
The following structures— heart & its large vessels, trachea, esophagus, thymus & lymph nodes, connective tissue— are all contained within the:
mediastinum
The two-layered CT membrane that surrounds and protects the heart. Name the layers.
Pericardium
1) fibrous pericardium
2) serous pericardium
What type of CT is the fibrous pericardium?
Tough, inelastic, dense irregular CT (like seran wrap around the serous pericardium)
What are the superior and inferior attachments of the fibrous pericardium?
The diaphragm inferiorly
The CT of the blood vessels superiorly
Which later of the pericardium holds the heart in the mediastinum and allows for movement?
Fibrous pericardium
This type of pericardium forms a double layer around the heart.
Serous pericardium
The outer layer/parietal layer of the serous pericardium is fused to the
Fibrous pericardium
The inner layer/visceral layer of the serous pericardium is fused to the
Heart muscle
True or false: the epicardium and the inner layer of the serous pericardium are the same structure.
True
The space between the parietal and visceral layers of the pericardium is the
Pericardial cavity
What is the purpose of the pericardial fluid that lines the pericardial cavity?
It reduces friction
Which layer of the heart is made of simple squamous epithelium and CT?
The epicardium
The epicardium gives the heart this type of texture.
Smooth and slippery
Layer of the heart where contraction occurs
Myocardium
This layer of the heart is made of endothelium overlying a thin layer of CT, providing a smooth lining for the chambers and valves of the heart
The endocardium
The layer of simple squamous epithelium that lines the cavities of the heart, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels.
Endothelium
The 2 superior chambers that receive blood from blood vessels (veins) returning to the heart.
Atria
The 2 inferior chambers that receive blood from the atria and eject it out into blood vessels (arteries)
Ventricles
What wall divides the two atria?
interatrial septum
What wall divides the two ventricles?
interventricular septum
Veins: carry blood _____ the heart
Arteries: carry blood _________ the heart
towards
away from
The three veins that carry blood into the right atria
- superior vena cava
- inferior vena cava
- coronary sinus
Blood passes from the right atrium through _________ into the right ventricle
Right atrioventricular (AV) valve (a.k.a. tricuspid valve)
The cusps of the right A-V valve are connected to tendon-like cords called _______________
Chordae tendineae
Chordae tendineae are anchored to the ventricular wall by____________
Papillary muscles
Blood is ejected by the right ventricle through the ____________ into
the pulmonary trunk.
pulmonary semilunar valve
The pulmonary trunk divides into the right and left ___________
pulmonary arteries
The left atrium receives blood from the ___________ (4)
pulmonary veins
Blood passes from the left atrium through the ______________ into the left ventricle
left atrioventricular (AV) valve (a.k.a. bicuspid valve, mitral valve)
Thickest chamber of the heart
Left ventricle
Blood is ejected by the left ventricle through the _______________ into the aorta
aortic semilunar valve
some of the blood in the aorta flows into ____________, which supply the heart with oxygen-rich blood
coronary arteries
When blood flows into the atria, it ___________ pressure in the atria, which opens the AV valves allowing blood to flow into the ventricles.
Increases
When the ventricles contract, _______________forces the AV valves closed
the increased pressure
_____________ contract to prevent the valves from being forced open in the opposite direction
The papillary muscles
When the ventricles contract, they increase pressure in the ventricles, causing the AV valves to close and _____________ to open
the pulmonary and aortic valves
When the ventricles relax, blood in the ________________arteries starts to flow back toward the
heart. This fills the cusps of the semilunar valves and they close.
pulmonary and aortic arteries
‘lub’: the sound made by the blood turbulence associated with ________________
the closing of the AV valves
‘dup’: the sound made by the blood turbulence associated with _________________-
the closing of the semilunar valves
A function of the right side of the heart in which deoxygenated blood returns from body tissues and enters the right atrium
Pulmonary circulation
A function of the left side of the heart in which oxygenated blood returns from the lungs and enters the left atrium.
Systemic circulation
Process by which coronary arteries branch off from the aorta and encircle the heart so that the heart gets its blood supply between beats.
Coronary circulation
Specialized cardiac muscle cells generate their own APs – they are called _____________ because they are __________________
autorhythmic fibres
self-excitable
The pathway along which the APs progress through the heart
The Conduction System
Structure in the right atrial wall that repeatedly generates APs which propagate through the atria via gap junctions causing atrial contraction and ejection of blood into the ventricles
Sinoatrial Node (SA node)
APs conduct through the AV node and along the right and left bundle branches of this structure, which extend along the interventricular septum to the apex of the heart.
Bundle of His (aka atrioventricular bundle)
The ____________________ very quickly conduct the APs upward through the ventricles causing
ventricular contraction and ejection of blood into the arteries.
The Purkinje fibres
As the APs move through the heart, they can be detected on the surface of the body. Problems can be identified based on the shape and timing of the tracing, which is called a(n)
Electrocardiogram (ECG)
All of the events associated with one heart beat
Cardiac cycle
Systole
contraction phase
Diastole
relaxation phase
the amount of blood the heart ejects each minute
Cardiac output
the amount of blood ejected from each ventricle with each beat
Stroke volume
heart rate x stroke volume
cardiac output (CO)
Average heart rate
72 bpm
average SV
70 ml
average CO:
~ 5 L/min
__________________ must adjust to meet blood flow demands (e.g. exercise, changes in blood volume)
heart rate
The control centre in the brain stem, gets input from sensory receptors and high brain centres (e.g. limbic system and cerebral cortex).
Autonomic Nervous System
Based on input, the control centre increases or decreases the frequency of APs in the SyNS and PaNS
• _________ SyNS: ___________ HR
• _________ PaNS: ___________ HR
- increased SyNS: increases HR
* increased PaNS: decrease HR
Epinephrine/norepinephrine ____________ HR and contractility
Increase
Thyroid hormones ___________ HR and contractility
Increase
Sodium and potassium – needed for normal APs – elevated blood levels __________ HR
Decrease
Elevated levels of calcium ____________ HR and contractility
Increase
Age, sex, fitness level and body temperature can have an effect on heart rate (T/F)
True
The left and right ventricles need to eject the same volume of blood (T/F)
True
The degree of stretch on the heart before it contracts
Preload
Greater stretch = __________ contraction (Frank-Starling law)
Stronger
the amount of stretch is proportional to the volume of blood that fills the ventricles at the end of __________
Diastole
The duration of ventricular diastole and venous return are the two factors that affect
End diastolic volume (EDV)
The strength of contraction at any given preload
Contractility
SyNS activation, hormones (adrenaline/epinephrine) and medications (e.g. digitalis) are three factors that affect
Contraction strength
The pressure that must be overcome before a semilunar valve can open
Afterload
Hypertension (high blood pressure) and narrowing of arteries by atherosclerosis are two factors that increase
Afterload
Large elastic arteries divide into medium-sized ___________________ which branch out into the different regions of the body
Muscular arteries
muscular arteries divide into smaller arteries which divide into smaller ______________
arterioles (a.k.a. the resistance vessels)
as arterioles enter the tissue, they divide/branch out into ______________
capillaries (a.k.a. the exchange vessels)
______________ exchange substances (gases, nutrients) between the blood and the tissues
capillaries
To carry blood back toward the heart, capillaries within tissues ‘reunite’ to form __________
venules
venules merge to form progressively larger _______
veins
veins merge into the ____________
vena cavae
(T/F) BVs (including capillaries) have the same 3-layered arrangement surrounding the lumen
• tunica intima
• tunica media
• tunica externa
False: excluding capillaries
inner layer of blood vessel wall, simple squamous epithelium (called endothelium) and a CT basement membrane
tunica intima
middle layer of blood vessel wall, contains elastic fibres and smooth muscle
tunica media
outer layer of blood vessel wall, contains elastic and collagen fibres, supports BVs and anchors them to surrounding structures
tunica externa (aka tunica adventitia)
Vasoconstriction
• a ____________ in lumen size
Vasodilation
• an ___________ in lumen size
Vasoconstriction
• a decrease in lumen size
Vasodilation
• an increase in lumen size
Blood vessel which stretch to accommodate blood flow (especially under pressure (i.e. when the ventricles contract)) and recoil which helps force the blood forward
arteries
Blood vessel for blood flow regulation, have a substantial ability to constrict or dilate the vessel, therefore have a significant effect on blood pressure
Arterioles
Blood vessel for microcirculation, found near almost every cell in the body, walls are a single layer of endothelium and a basement membrane, they do nutrient and waste exchange
Capillaries
These blood vessels have little smooth muscle and less elastic CT, not designed to withstand high pressure, need help moving blood and have one-way valves to prevent backflow.
Veins
Blood is ___% fluid and _____% cells
fluid (55%) and cells (45%)
Temperature and pH of blood
38oC, pH 7.4
Volume of blood in average male and female
male blood volume: 5-6 L, female blood volume: 4-5 L
transport protein of blood
albumin
some are transport proteins, some are involved in the immune response
globulins
essential in blood clotting
fibrinogen
Common name for erythrocytes
red blood cells
Common name for leukocytes
white blood cells
Common name for thrombocytes
platelets
What gives red blood cells its color?
Hemoglobin (an oxygen-carrying protein)
the formation of RBCs
hemopoiesis (or hematopoiesis)
the % of blood volume occupied by RBCs
hematocrit
lower than normal hematocrit
anemia
higher than normal hematocrit
polycythemia
most common type of granular WBC, function in phagocytosis
neutrophils
type of granular WBC, function in allergic reactions, parasitic infections
eosinophils
type of granular WBC, function in stress and allergic responses
basophils
Three types of lymphocytes (divisions of agranular WBCs)
i. B lymphocytes
ii. T lymphocytes
iii. natural killer cells
Type of agranular WBCs that aren’t lymphocytes:
monocytes
- leukocytosis: __________ WBC count
* leukopenia: ___________ WBC count
- leukocytosis: increased WBC count
* leukopenia: decreased WBC count
These blood cells help stop bleeding/contain substances to promote clotting, live 5-9 days
Platelets
___________________ generates blood pressure (the pressure on the walls of the blood vessel)
ventricular contraction
the highest arterial pressure during ventricular systole
systolic BP
the lowest arterial pressure during ventricular diastole
diastolic BP
the average blood pressure in the arteries
Mean arterial pressure
(T/F) Blood pressure rises progressively with distance from the left ventricle.
False: it falls progressively
System responsible for drainage of excess interstitial fluid, transportation of lipids (from the digestive
system), protection/immune responses
Lymphatic system
Excess filtered fluid (~3 L/day) that leaks from capillaries
that must return to circulation
Lymph
Smallest structure of lymphatic flow, begin in the spaces between cells, closed at one end, high permeability, cells forming the endothelium overlap to allow fluid in but not back out, pressure drives interstitial fluid into them
Lymphatic capillaries
Lymphatic capillaries merge into larger vessels called ______________
• lots of one-way valves
• at regular intervals, lymph passes through lymph nodes
Lymphatic vessels
Bean shaped clusters of lymphocytes (B cells and T cells) surrounded by a dense CT capsule (~600 in the body, lymph flows in, foreign substances are trapped and
destroyed).
Lymph nodes
Larger lymphatic vessels merge into _________
Trunks
Lymphatic duct which drains the • left side of the head & neck • left side of the chest • entire body below the ribs • it drains into the left subclavian vein
Thoracic Duct
Lymphatic duct which drains the
• right side of the head & neck
• right side of the chest
• it drains into the right subclavian vein
Right Lymphatic Duct
Three ways lymphatic flow is maintained
1) Skeletal Muscle Pump
2) diaphragmatic breathing/respiratory pump
3) smooth muscle contraction (in the vessel walls – minimal contribution)
Lymphatic organ that produces B cells and immature T cells (a.k.a. pre-T cells)
Red marrow
Lymphatic organ located in the mediastinum, produces mature T cells from pre-T cells, large at birth, significantly atrophied by maturity
Thymus
Large mass of lymphatic tissue between the stomach and the diaphragm, filters blood (similar to the process in a lymph node), removes ruptured, worn out, defective RBCs
• stores platelets and monocytes
Spleen
Part of the immune system that provides rapid responses, doesn’t recognize specific invaders but react in the same way to all invaders, no memory component
Non-Specific Defences
Name three structures of the First Line of the body’s non-specific immune defenses
Skin, mucous membranes, body fluids
Antimicrobial proteins, natural killer (NK) cells, phagocytes, histiocytes (CT), Kupffer cells (liver), alveolar macrophages (lung), microglia (CNS), inflammation and fever are all a part of:
The Second Line of Non-Specific Defense
Substances that are recognized as foreign and elicit an immune response
Antigen
