Test #1 Flashcards
ultramicroscopic building blocks of matter, containing a nucleus (protons and neutrons) and surrounding electrons
atoms
when two or more atoms bond to form a stable structure
molecule
a substance made of different atoms (e.g., H2S, CH4)
compound
a substance made entirely of the same atoms
element
an atom with an unequal number of protons and electrons (it therefore has a positive or negative charge)
ion
an atom or molecule with an unpaired electron
free radical
there is energy stored in the bonds between atoms and molecules. when these bonds are formed or are broken, it is called a _______________
chemical reaction
the sum of all chemical reactions occurring in the body
metabolism
the building phase of metabolism in which simple molecules are combined to make more complex ones and energy is consumed
anabolism
the breaking phase of metabolism in which complex molecules are broken down into simpler ones and energy is released
catabolism
the ‘energy currency’ of the body
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
the energy stored in ATP is ‘spent’ to perform many (very important) body functions. what were the four examples of how ATP is spent.
▪ muscle contraction
▪ cell division
▪ movement of some substances across cell membranes ▪ making large molecules out of smaller ones
how does the body regain ATP?
breaking down (i.e. catabolizing) food
which three energy substrates are used to reform ATP (attach P back on to ADP)?
carbohydrates, fats, and proteins
depending on the cell, the demand for energy, and the energy substrate available, different substrates will be used. this is called _______________
Cellular Preference
what do we call the series of reactions that transfer energy from food to ATP
cellular respiration
cellular respiration that happens without oxygen present/being used is called ___________-
anaerobic
cellular respiration that happens with oxygen present/being used is called ____________
aerobic
the preferred energy substrate of the human body is
carbohydrates
the process of making ATP from glucose occurs in the cell cytoplasm and is called
glycosis
glucose stored in the blood is called
glycogen
through glycolysis, a molecule of glucose is broken into_____ and ________
2 molecules of pyruvic acid and 2 ATP
what effect does oxygen have on glycosis (aerobic)?
pyruvic acid enters the mitochondria and a series of reactions yield 26-28 more ATP
in this version of glycosis, pyruvic acid does not go into the mitochondria – it is converted into lactic acid which quickly converts to lactate.
anaerobic
what needs to be present for fat to be used to make ATP?
oxygen
the breakdown of stored fat (use of glycerol and fatty acids to make ATP) is called
lipolysis
the # of ATP generated by fat cells depends on what?
the size of the fat
what kinds of cells make ketone bodies which are used by other cells (esp. heart, nervous system, kidneys) to make ATP
liver cells (hepatocytes)
to make ATP, proteins are broken down into _________
amino acids
True or False: using amino acids to generate ATP is efficient and generates little waste
False. It takes longer than other energy substrates and generates extra wastes. only small amounts of proteins/amino acids are used to generate ATP
substances needed for body structure and function
nutrients
compounds that contain no carbon, such as water, many salts, acids, bases, are called
inorganic compounds
In a solution, the __________ dissolves into the ___________
solute dissolves into the solvent
what is it called when inorganic acids, bases, or salts dissolve in water, separate into ions and become surrounded by water molecules
dissociation
a substance that dissociates into one or more hydrogen ions (H+) is a(n)
acid
a substance that dissociates into one or more hydroxide ions (OH-)
base
a substance that dissociates into positive and negative ions (no H+ or OH-)
salt
the more hydrogen ions (H+) dissolved in a solution, the more _______ it is
acidic
the more hydroxide ions (OH-) dissolved in solution, the more ___________ it is
base (alkaline)
acidity or alkalinity is expressed on the ________ scale. what is the range of the scale, and what is neutral
the pH scale. the range is 0-14, and 7 is neutral
True or False: the body handles significant changes in pH well
False
compounds that contain carbon, such as ATP, proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, are called
Organic compounds
large, complex molecules structures made up of amino acids are called
proteins
type of protein that suggests a framework of body parts
structural proteins
type of protein related to hormones
regulatory proteins
type of proteins that shorten muscle cells
contractile proteins
type of proteins that regulate biochemical reactions
catalytic proteins
type of proteins that help fight off invading pathogens
immunological proteins
fats and other fat-like substances are called
lipids
the storage form of excess calories
triglycerides
sugars (e.g., glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose) and starches (major carb source in our diets) fall into this category of energy substrate
carbohydrates
your genetic material – controls most cell activities
DNA
relays genetic instructions to guide protein synthesis
RNA
the smallest functional unit that can retain the necessary characteristics for life
the cell
a group of similar cells that perform a similar function
tissue
what are the four major groups of tissue?
epithelial, connective, muscular, nervous
part of the body composed of at least 2 different kinds of tissue
organs
a group of organs related to each other that perform functions together
system (or organ system)
The condition of balance in the body’s internal environment due to the constant interaction of the body’s many internal regulatory processes is called
Homeostasis
which bodily structures contribute to maintaining homeostasis?
all of them
a cycle of events in which the internal environment is monitored, evaluated, changed, re-monitored, re- valuated is called
Feedback systems/loops
within a feedback loop, the variable being monitored is the ___________
controlled condition
whatever disrupts/changes the controlled condition (disruptions can be external
or internal) is called the
stimulus
a structure that monitors changes in a controlled condition for chemical, electrical, and mechanical changes
sensor/receptor
the nervous and blood vessel pathways that relay messages between (1) the sensor/receptor
and the control centre, and (2) the control centre and the effector
transmission pathways
the part of the feedback loop which sets the range of values within which the controlled condition should be maintained, evaluates and compares the input received from the sensor/receptor against the set range, determines the body’s responses to the change in the controlled condition
control centre
the structure in a feedback loop that the structure(s) that receives the commands from the control centre and produces the response that will change the controlled condition
effector
this type of feedback loop reverses changes in the internal environment. it is very stable and is the predominant system/loop
negative feedback loop
this type of feedback loop strengthens changes in the internal environment. it is inherently unstable and uncommon
positive feedback loop
the adjustment of an organism to its environment is called
adaptation
the adjustment of an organism to counterbalance a defect is called
compensation
a flexible, sturdy barrier surrounding the cell contents, separating the cell from the external environment
the cell membrane
if part(s) of the body is dysfunctional, ________ will be harder to maintain or may not be maintained
homeostasis
what happens to our ability to return to homeostasis as we age?
it decreases
relative to the cell membrane, fluid between cells (interstitial fluid), fluid in blood vessels (plasma) and fluid surrounding the brain & spinal cord (cerebrospinal fluid) are examples of
Extracellular fluid
these selective channels allow and/or move molecules from one side of the cell membrane to the other
membrane proteins
finger-like projections of the plasma membrane that increase surface area (no movement)
microvilli
the contents of a cell (everything inside the plasma membrane but outside the nucleus)
cytoplasm
this network of protein filaments within the cytosol provides structural framework for cell shape, a scaffold for the organization/placement and movement of cell contents (organelles), and aids in cell movement
cytoskeleton
this control center for cell, responsible for the cell’s metabolism, growth, and reproduction (it contains the genetic material (DNA)), is present in all human cells except for red blood cells
nucleus
site of protein synthesis within the cell
ribosomes
a site of protein synthesis (ribosomes are attached)
endoplasmic reticulum
intracellular structure which makes lipid molecules, regulates calcium within the cell and regulates metabolism
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
intracellular structure that processes, sorts, packages, and delivers molecules to the plasma membrane or around the cell (the post office!)
golgi complex (a.k.a. apparatus, body)
these break down substances that the cell has taken in or normal parts of the cell that are damaged
lysosomes
power plants of the cell (they transform organic compounds into energy (ATP) that is easily accessible to the cell)
mitochondria
short, hair-like projections extending from the surface of the cell – their movement causes steady movement of fluid/particles along the cell surface
cilia
similar to cilia but longer, they move the cell
flangellum
the act of cells transporting material across the plasma membrane (both in and out)
membrane transport
membrane transport is either passive or active, depending on what?
whether it requires energy
the difference in the concentration of a chemical from one place to another (e.g., from the inside to the outside of the plasma membrane) is called
concentration gradient
the movement of molecules across the plasma membrane down their concentration gradient is called
diffusion
the passive movement of water across a selectively permeable plasma membrane from an area of
high water concentration to an area of low water concentration
osmosis
what conditions are necessary for osmosis?
the membrane being crossed is permeable to water and not to certain solutes
the movement of a substance across a membrane against its concentration gradient, in which energy is used/needed to ‘pump’ it through membrane-bound proteins, is called
active transport
extracellular materials are brought into a cell in a vesicle formed by the plasma membrane in a process called
endocytosis
a form of endocytosis in which the cell engulfs large solid particles like bacteria, viruses, worn-out cells
phagocytosis
vesicles formed in a cell fuse with the plasma membrane and release materials out of the cell in a process called
exocytosis
type of cell junctions that prevent the passage of substances between cells
tight junctions
type of cell junctions that anchor cells to one another
anchoring junctions
type of cell junctions that provide channels to allow substances to pass between cells
gap junctions
type of tissues that cover body surfaces, line hollow organs, body cavities, and ducts, and form gland. they function as selective barriers, secretory surfaces, and protective surfaces. examples: skin, gastrointestinal tract, respiratory tract, lining of blood vessels and the
heart
epithelial
what 3 types of surfaces can epithelium have?
free, basal, and lateral
the thin layer that anchors the epithelial cells to the underlying connective tissue and provides a surface for cell migration during growth or wound healing
basement membrane
this structure of epithelial tissue has one layer and is good for the passage of substances
simple
this form of epithelial tissue has a single layer (not all cells reach the free surface), some have cilia, goblet
cells secrete mucous
pseudostratified
this form of epithelial tissue has more than one layer, good for protection
stratified
this form of epithelial cells have a flat and thin shape for rapid movement of substances (simple) or protection (stratified)
squamous
this form of epithelial cells are cube (or hexagon) shaped, free surface may have microvilli, good for secretion or
absorption
cuboidal
this form of epithelial cells are taller than wide, free surface may have cilia or microvilli, good for secretion or
absorption
columnar
one or more cells that make and secrete a particular product are called
glands
this type of glands secrete their products into ducts (tubes) that empty onto the epithelial surface ▪ examples: sweat, salivary, oil
exocrine
this type of glands secrete their products into the interstitial fluid and diffuse directly into the bloodstream without flowing through a duct
▪ examples: pituitary, thyroid, adrenals
endocrine
this type of tissue is made of extracellular matrix (ECM - the material between the cells) and cells, have a good blood supply, and most have a nerve supply
connective tissue
this type of tissue is responsible for protection, support/definition, binding, transportation, energy, and immunity
connective tissue
collagen, elastin and reticular are all forms of
protein fibres
this component of ECM may be fluid, gel-like or calcified
. it supports the cells and through it, substances are exchanged between the blood and the cells.
ground substance
protein fibres and ground substance make up
extracellular matrix (ECM)
blasts, macrophages, plasma cells, mast cells, adipocytes are examples of
Connective Tissue Cells
present in all general CT, these produce the protein fibres and the ground substance
fibroblasts
these eat bacteria and cellular debris
macrophages
these cells are part of the immune response (secrete antibodies)
plasma cells
these cells make histamine (part of the inflammatory response)
mast cells
these are cells that store fat
adipocytes
1) Loose (areolar, adipose, reticular)
2) Dense (regular, irregular, elastic)
3) Bone
4) Cartilage (hyaline, fibrocartilage, elastic)
5) Liquid (blood, lymph)
These are the 5 types of
Connective Tissue
this type of CT has more cells and fewer fibres, fibres are loosely intertwined
Loose
most widely distributed CT in the body (the universal packing tissue/glue), this type of loose CT is found in and around nearly every body structure (beneath the skin, around blood vessels, nerves, and body organs)
function: strength, elasticity, support
Areolar
this is a type of areolar tissue that contains a lot of adipocytes
▪ locations: beneath the skin, around some organs (kidneys, heart, behind eyeball) ▪ function: thermoregulation, energy, support, protection
Adipose
Type of loose CT that forms the supporting framework of organs, binds smooth muscle cells, filters and removes old blood cells and microbes.
locations: liver, spleen, lymph nodes, basement membrane, around blood vessels and muscles
Reticular
Type of CT with more fibres (mostly collagen), fewer cells
Dense Connective Tissue
Type of dense CT in which collagen is arranged in parallel patterns
▪ locations: tendons (muscle to bone) and most ligaments (bone to bone) ▪ function: very strong but somewhat pliable structural connections
Regular
Type of dense CT in which collagen is arranged in random/irregular patterns
▪ locations: structure, support
▪ function: tensile (pulling strength in many directions
irregular
Type of dense CT with high elastin content
▪ locations: lung tissue, arteries, ligaments between vertebrae ▪ function: stretch and recoil
Elastic
Type of connective tissue characterized by fewer cells with large amounts of collagen fibres
▪ the matrix is filled with calcium phosphate salts which make it very hard
▪ function: protection and support, movement
Bones
Type of connective tissue that is strong and resilient
▪ cells are called chondrocytes
▪ ground substance has large amounts of collagen, also contains elastin fibres ▪ avascular, aneural
Cartilage
most common cartilage in the body
▪ blue-white appearance
▪ locations: ends of bones, parts of ribs, tip of nose, parts of the throat and lungs, fetal
skeleton
▪ function: flexibility, support, friction reduction, shock absorption
hyaline cartilage
type of cartilage located between vertebrae (intervertebral discs), pubic symphysis, menisci ▪ function: support
fibrocartilage
type of cartilage that has elastin fibres
▪ locations: epiglottis, part of the external ear
▪ function: support and flexibility while maintaining shape
Elastic Cartilage
This type of connective tissue includes blood and lymph
Liquid
this type of connective tissue is characterized by specialized cells that use ATP in the generation of force
Muscle cells
category of muscle tissue compartmentalized by CT, they are attached to the skeleton (some attach to the skin) ▪ cell structure: cells are cylindrical and can be quite long
▪ function: movement and heat production
▪ conscious/voluntary control
skeletal muscle
category of muscle tissue found in the walls of hollow tubes (e.g. lungs, blood vessels, stomach, intestines) ▪ involuntary control
▪ cell structure: spindle shaped
▪ function: constriction of tubes, movement of substances through the tubes
smooth muscle
category of muscle tissue found only in the heart. cell structure: branched striated fibres that fit tightly together ▪ function: blood flow/propulsion
▪ involuntary control
cardiac muscle
Type of connective tissue designed for communication
Nervous tissue
that support, nourish, and protect the nervous system
Neuroglia
One of two types of cells in nervous tissue, aka nerve cells
▪ 3 parts: dendrite, cell body, axon
Neurons
Part of a neuron
▪ structure: multiple or single extensions off the cell body ▪ function: it is the input portion of the neuron
dendrite
Part of a neuron
▪ structure: contains the nucleus and other organelles
▪ function: cell processes (e.g. protein synthesis)
Cell body
Part of a neuron
▪ a thin cylindrical process off the cell body
▪ function: it is the output portion of the neuron
axon
