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Psychology > Test 3: Chapters 6 + 7 > Flashcards

Test 3: Chapters 6 + 7 Flashcards

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1
Q

What is learning?

A

A relatively permanent change in behaviour, knowledge, capability, or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation.

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2
Q

What are the 3 forms of learning?

A
  • Classical conditioning
  • Operant conditioning
  • Social cognitive theory
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3
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

A form of learning in which an association is formed between one stimulus and another.

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4
Q

What is pairing?

A

Putting two things together so that an association can be formed (bell+food=salivating)

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5
Q

What is an unconditioned stimulus (US)?

A

Automatically produces a response.

  • Food
  • Loud noise
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6
Q

What is an unconditioned response (UR)?

A

Is made to the US.

  • Salivating
  • Fear
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7
Q

What is a neutral stimulus (NS)?

A

Does not produce a response.

  • Bell/researcher
  • Balloon
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8
Q

What is a conditioned stimulus (CS)?

A

Was previously NS but now is conditioned to produce a response.

  • Bell/researcher
  • Balloon
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9
Q

What is a conditioned response (CR)?

A

Is the response made to the CS.

  • Salivating
  • Fear
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10
Q

What is extinction (CC)?

A

The CS is repeatedly presented without the US (CS becomes NS again).

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11
Q

What is spontaneous recovery (CC)?

A

Sometimes occurs when, after extinction, the CS is again presented with the US causing the CR to reappear.
(Can take 20 times originally, pause for while - extinction - but then next time they’re paired it only takes once to get the reaction)

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12
Q

What is generalization (CC)?

A

A stimulus, similar to the CS, elicits the CR.
(Dogs can generalize all bells with similar sounds, Albert is afraid of all things with white fur, fear of doctor generalized to fear of hospital)

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13
Q

What is discrimination (CC)?

A

CR is made only to the CS and not to any other similar stimuli.
(Afraid of apples but not of apple sliced, only salivate when hearing the right bell tone)

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14
Q

What are the factors affecting classical conditioning?

A
  • Number of pairings of CS and US
  • Intensity of US
  • How reliable CS predicts US (false fire alarm)
  • Time between the CS and US
  • Survival of species
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15
Q

What are examples of classical conditioning in our life?

A
  • Songs, scents (pleasant/not)
  • Taste aversion
  • Fears and phobias
  • Drug use, tolerance and environment
  • Advertising and commercials
  • Fetish and sexual arousal
  • The dog whisperer
  • Removal of fears
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16
Q

What is operant conditioning?

A

A form of learning in which the consequences of behaviour are manipulated in order to increase or decrease the frequency of a response or to shape an entirely new response.
(Shaping behaviour with consequences)

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17
Q

What is shaping?

A

Reinforcing or rewarding successive approximations of the desired response.
Encouragement for attempting the behaviour.
(Give rat a treat so he keeps trying to push on the lever, say god job to axel when he tries to answer a question so he keeps trying)

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18
Q

What are the types of consequences?

A
  • Reinforcement: a happy consequence :)

- Punishment: a sad consequence :(

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19
Q

What is a reinforcer?

A

Anything that follows a behaviour that increases the likelihood that the behaviour will occur again.

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20
Q

What is extinction (OC)?

A

Occurs when reinforcement is withheld.

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21
Q

What is generalization (OC)?

A

Occurs when we do respond to similar stimuli/situations as the conditioned ones.

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22
Q

What is discrimination (OC)?

A

Occurs when we do not respond to similar stimuli/situations as the conditioned ones (because they are not rewarded).

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23
Q

What are the types of reinforcement?

A
  • Positive

- Negative

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24
Q

What is positive reinforcement?

A

A behaviour that is likely to occur again because it was followed by a pleasant or desirable consequence.
- Giving something happy/good

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25
Q

What is negative reinforcement?

A

A behaviour is likely to occur again because it was followed by the termination of an aversive condition.
- Taking away something sad/bad

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26
Q

What are the types of reinforcers?

A
  • Primary

- Secondary

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27
Q

What is a primary reinforcer?

A

Fulfill a basic physical need for survival and do not depend on learning (food, water, sleep, no pain, sex).

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28
Q

What is a secondary reinforcer?

A

Are acquired or learned by association with other reinforcers (money, praise, awards, bonuses, grades, smiles).

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29
Q

What are the schedules of reinforcement?

A
  • Continuous
  • Partial
  • Ratio?
  • Interval?
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30
Q

What is a continuous schedule of reinforcement?

A

Occurs when each correct response is reinforced.

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31
Q

What is a partial reinforcement schedule?

A

Occurs when correct responses are reinforced randomly or intermittently.
(Trip to dollar store after week of continuous good homework)

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32
Q

What is a ratio schedule?

A

Number of times you have to behave.

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33
Q

What is a fixed ratio schedule?

A

Reinforcement given after a fixed number of correct responses.
Pause after reinforcement then high response rate.

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34
Q

What is a variable ratio schedule?

A

Reinforcement given after a varying number of correct responses.
Highest response rate with no pause.
Most resistant to extinction.
(Gambling - guaranteed the payout will come but don’t know when so keep playing)

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35
Q

What are interval schedules?

A

A certain amount of time (sec, min, hours) behaviour has to to happen during that time period to get reward after.

36
Q

What is a fixed interval schedule?

A

Reinforcement given after the specific time interval has passed (given for first correct response following 60 sec after previous reinforcer).
Lowest response rate.

37
Q

What is a variable interval schedule?

A

Reinforcement given after varying amount of time (for first correct answer following 40,50,70 sec after previous reinforcer, pop quizzes)
Continuous moderate responding.

38
Q

What are factors influencing success of reinforcement?

A
  • Magnitude of reinforcement (how good/big of a prize it is for doing the behaviour)
  • Immediacy of reinforcement
  • Motivation of learner
39
Q

What are continuous and partial schedules best used for?

A

Continuous: best to condition a new response
Partial: best to maintain a response and make extinction slower/harder

40
Q

What is punishment?

A

Anything that follows a behaviour, that decreases the probability that the behaviour will occur again.

41
Q

What are the types of punishment?

A
  • Positive

- Negative

42
Q

What is positive punishment?

A

Present pain producing or aversive stimulus.

Give something unhappy/bad

43
Q

What is negative punishment?

A

Removal of pleasant stimulus.

No play date Friday night, detention/grounding - removal of freedom, parking ticket - removal of money + points

44
Q

What are the factors influencing the success of punishment?

A
  • Quick timing
  • Appropriate intensity
  • Appropriate type
  • Consistency
  • Not administered in anger
45
Q

What is avoidance learning?

A

Engaging in behaviours to avoid aversive consequences.

Coming to the table when mother’s voice reached certain pitch, pills for pain

46
Q

How do classical and operant conditioning work together in avoidance learning?

A
  • CC installs the association
  • OC maintains the association
    (Don’t drink and drive, feel relief (reinforcer) so don’t do again)
    (Fear of orals cause of association with throwing up, avoid coming to class to do oral, feel relief (reinforcer) so do it again)
47
Q

What is learned helplessness?

A

Giving up after repeated exposure to aversive events that are perceived as inescapable and unavoidable.
(In people: abusive relationships, school failures, depression, shyness)

48
Q

What is token economy?

A

Modification whereby good behaviour is reinforced with tokens (poker chips, coupons) which can then be exchanged for special privileges.

49
Q

What are examples of operant conditioning in our everyday life?

A
  • Psychologist (behaviour modification)
  • Employment
  • Insurance
  • School
50
Q

What is the social cognitive theory?

A

Learning by observation and imitation while still using cognitive skills to decide who/when to imitate.
(Asking questions to determine do I want to imitate this behaviour)

51
Q

What are the factors influencing observational learning?

A
  • Status
  • Age
  • Gender
  • Attractiveness
  • Ethnicity
  • Rewarded/punished?
52
Q

What are examples of observational learning in everyday life?

A
  • Activities: tie shoes, biking, ski
  • Moral values/behaviour: TV, video games
  • Preparation: sports, childbirth, hospitalization
  • Languages
  • Food preferences
  • Dress
  • New situations
  • Fears
53
Q

What is memory?

A

The process by which we encode, store and retrieve information.

54
Q

Why is memory important?

A
  • Knowledge
  • Acquiring new knowledge
  • Skills
  • Acquiring new skills
55
Q

What is the information processing model (3 step computer analogy)?

A
  • Encoding
  • Storage
  • Retrieval
56
Q

What does encoding require?

A

Requires selective attention.

57
Q

What does storage require?

A

Requires physiological consolidation.

It needs time to “save”. Won’t remember few seconds before car crash because no time

58
Q

What does retrieval require?

A

Requires successful encoding, storage, no interference and good health.

59
Q

How long can memories be stored?

A
  • Split second (sensory memory)
  • Fraction of a minute (short-term memory)
  • Forever (long-term memory)
60
Q

What is sensory memory?

A
  • Haptic (touch)
  • Echoic (hear)
  • Iconic (sight)
  • Olfactory (smell)
  • Gustatory (taste)
    Can remember the letters that were flashed on the screen just enough to write them down right away.
61
Q

What is short-term memory?

A
  • Nicknamed working memory because it requires effort.

- Chunking strategy (can remember bits of information 7 give or take 2, can put information into meaningful groups)

62
Q

What is long-term memory?

A

Unlimited permanent information gets in long-term memory through rehearsal.

63
Q

What is explicit long-term memory?

A
  • Declarative (effort)
  • Episodic: life events
  • Semantic: knowledge
  • Hippocampus “save button”
64
Q

What is implicit long-term memory?

A
  • Non-declarative (automatic)

- Motor skills (basal ganglia) and classically conditioned responses (cerebellum)

65
Q

How are emotions important in memory?

A
  • Stress hormones increase glucose for brain activity signaling this is important
  • Provoke amygdala to boost memory activity
    Earlier memories are usually related to extreme emotions (good or bad)
66
Q

What are the 3 ways to measure memory retention (retrieval)?

A
  • Recall: producing information from memory without cues
  • Recognition: producing information from memory with cues
  • Relearn: the time it takes to relearn the information
67
Q

What are the 5 factors influencing retrieval?

A
  • Priming
  • Serial position
  • Von Restorff
  • Environmental context
  • State dependent
68
Q

What is priming?

A

Activation of associations in memory, often unconscious. Seeing/hearing a word can activate associations. (asking two questions where the answer is white, then ask what do cows drink say milk)

69
Q

What is serial position?

A
  • Primacy: information at the beginning is likely to be remembered because it’s already in long-term memory
  • Recency: information at the end is likely to be remembered because it is in short-term memory
70
Q

What is Von Restorff?

A

Items that are exotic or unusual are more likely to be remembered because they stand out.

71
Q

What is environmental context?

A

Information is easier to remember when the person is in the same environment where they learned it (when you go downstairs to get something but can’t remember what so once you get back upstairs you remember cause same environment).

72
Q

What is state dependent?

A

Information is easier to remember when the person is in the same emotional sate as when they learned it (like drunk, high).

73
Q

What are the 8 causes of forgetting?

A
  • Encoding failure
  • Consolidation failure
  • Decay
  • Interference
  • Motivated forgetting (repression)
  • Retrieval failure
  • Dimentia
  • Amnesia
74
Q

What is encoding failure?

A

Material has never been put into long-term memory.

  • Selective attention
  • Divided attention
  • Inattentional blindness
  • Change blindness
75
Q

What is consolidation failure?

A

Storage process is interrupted by a loss of consciousness.

  • Accident
  • Seizure
  • Shock
76
Q

What is decay?

A

If memory is not used, it fades with time.

77
Q

What is interference?

A
  • Proactive: Older memories interfere with newer memories

- Retroactive: Newer memories interfere with older memories

78
Q

What is motivated forgetting?

A

Removal of painful, frightening, unpleasant memories from consciousness (can’t be done on purpose)

79
Q

What is retrieval failure?

A

We are certain we know something but are unable to retrieve it (tip of the tongue).

80
Q

What is dementia?

A

Diseases affecting the brain and cognitive functions.

- Alzheimer’s

81
Q

What is amnesia?

A

Memory loss that occurs without other cognitive difficulties.

  • Retrograde: memory loss of experiences prior to trauma (but can form new memories)
  • Anterograde: Unable to form new memories since the trauma (so damage to hippocampus)
82
Q

What are the 4 memory phenomena?

A
  • Memory is constructed
  • Flashbulb memories
  • Eidetic imagery
  • Eyewitness testimony
83
Q

What is memory is constructed?

A
  • Associative
  • False memories: aren’t true but feel true
  • Impossible memories: like seeing bugs bunny at disneyland
  • Imagination inflation: imagining event that never happened increases confidence that it did
  • Misinformation effect: ideas are planted in mind because of what others say
  • Source amnesia: something seems familiar but can’t tell if it’s actual memory or something we read, dreamed, etc
84
Q

What are flashbulb memories?

A
  • An extremely vivid memory of the conditions surrounding the first hearing of a shocking event (what we were doing, who we were with, when)
  • Our confidence for recall is very high but our memory is flawed
  • We’ll remember the event but not our personal things
85
Q

What is eidetic memory?

A
  • Photographic memory
  • The ability to retain information for several minutes after viewing
  • Very rare
    Able to recall without the tricks.
86
Q

What is eyewitness testimony?

A
  • Reliability: surprise visitor, varying answers to describe visitor after a few minutes
  • Misinformation effect: leading questions
  • Hypnosis: increases accurate and inaccurate information recall, high confidence in both.
87
Q

What are the 12 ways to improve memory?

A
  • Organize material
  • Mnemonics (acronyms, phrases)
  • Overlearn
  • Spaced practice (don’t cram)
  • Active learning
  • Make the material meaningful (tell a story, song)
  • Visualize
  • Make connections (connecting new information to existing memories)
  • Mild emotional arousal (little anxiety makes you alert and pay attention)
  • Schedule building (avoid similar subjects back to back)
  • Study schedule (avoid similar subjects back to back)
  • Sleep (study before sleep, take short naps)

Psychology (5 decks)

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