Test 2: Chapters 2 + 5 Flashcards
(181 cards)
1
Q
What are neurons?
A
Specialized cells that carry messages throughout the nervous system.
2
Q
What are the types of neurons?
A
- Afferent
- Efferent
- Inter
3
Q
What are afferent neurons?
A
- Sensory
- From senses to brain and spinal cord (CNS)
4
Q
What are efferent neurons?
A
- Motor
- From the CNS to glands and muscles
5
Q
What are interneurons?
A
“In between” neurons in CNS
6
Q
How many neurons are there in the brain and how long are they?
A
- About 100 billion
- From thousands of cm - 1 m
7
Q
What are the parts of a neuron?
A
- Cell body
- Dendrites
- Axons
- Myelin sheath
- Glial cells
8
Q
What are glial cells?
A
- Forms the myelin sheath on axons
- Like glue that holds neurons together
- Removes waste such as dead neurons
- Accelerates impulses
9
Q
What can a loss of glial cells result in?
A
Multiple sclerosis
10
Q
What are the structures at the synapse?
A
- Axon terminal
- Synaptic vesicles
- Neurotransmitters
- Synaptic cleft
11
Q
What charge does a neuron have at resting potential?
A
Negative
12
Q
What is the action potential in firing a neuron?
A
“All or none”
13
Q
What is the refractory period of firing a neuron?
A
1 - 2 ms
14
Q
How fast can a neuron be fired?
A
Up to 1000 times per second.
15
Q
What are the functions of the neurotransmitter: acetylcholine?
A
Motor control at junction between nerves and muscles
- Excitatory - skeletal
- Inhibitory - heart
Mental process
- Learning
- Memory
- Sleep/dream
16
Q
What if you have too little acetylcholine?
A
You could have Alzheimer’s.
17
Q
What are the 4 monoamines?
A
- Epinephrine
- Norepinephrine
- Serotonin
- Dopamine
18
Q
What do the monoamines do?
A
- Regulate arousal
- Regulate feelings
- Motivate behaviour
19
Q
What are the functions of the neurotransmitter: epinephrine?
A
Bursts of energy after exciting/threatening event, AKA “adrenaline rush”
20
Q
What are the functions of the neurotransmitter: norepinephrine?
A
- Arousal and alertness (for vigilance)
21
Q
What happens if you have too little or too much norepinephrine?
A
Too much: manic
Too little: depression
22
Q
What would block the re-uptake of norepinephrine?
A
Cocaine and crack.
23
Q
What are the functions of the neurotransmitter: serotonin?
A
- Negative mood regulation
- Impulse control
- Dreaming
24
Q
What happens if you have too little serotonin?
A
- Depression/suicide
- Anxiety
- Impulse disorder
25
What would block the re-uptake of serotonin?
Antidepressants
26
What are the functions of the neurotransmitter: dopamine?
- Motivation and reward (eat, drink, sex)
| - Motor control and planning
27
What happens if you have too little or too much dopamine?
Too much: schizophrenia
| Too little: Parkinson's
28
What would block the re-uptake of dopamine?
Cocaine and crack.
29
What are the functions of the neurotransmitter: gaba?
- Most important inhibitory transmitter
- Prevents neural activity chaos
- Reduces anxiety
30
What happens if you have too little gaba?
Epilepsy
31
What would block the re-uptake of gaba?
Tranquilizers and alcohol.
| I am guessing based off of other questions...
32
What are the functions of the neurotransmitter: glutamate?
- Most important excitatory transmitter
| - Learning and memory
33
What happens if you have too much glutamate?
Stroke or brain injury.
| - Excessive glutamate is released after which causes seizures and neural death
34
What are the functions of the neurotransmitter: endorphins?
- Less pain
- More pleasure, well-being (runner's high)
Opiates-opium, morphine, heroin, codeine
35
What is the nervous system made up of?
- Central nervous system
| - Peripheral nervous system
36
What is the central nervous system made up of?
- Brain
| - Spinal cord
37
What is the peripheral nervous system made up of?
- Somatic nervous system
| - Autonomic nervous system
38
What is the autonomic nervous system made up of?
- Synpathetic
| - Parasymphathetic
39
What is the brainstem made up of?
- Medulla
- Reticular formation
- Pons
40
What does the medulla control/regulate?
- Heartbeat
- Breathing
- Blood pressure
- Coughing
- Swallowing
- Vomiting
41
What does the reticular formation control/regulate?
- Attention
| - Alertness
42
What do the pons control/regulate?
- Body movement
- Sleep
- Dreaming
43
What is the cerebellum?
- “little brain”
- Graceful smooth movement and coordination
- Two hemispheres
44
What does the thalamus do?
Relay of sensory info between lower and higher brain areas.
45
What is the hypothalamus?
The master regulator of almost all 4Fs (flight, fight, freeze, mate) but not pressure, heart rate, breathing.
46
What is apart of the limbic system?
- Amygdala
| - Hippocampus
47
What does the amygdala control/regulate?
Emotion related to survival (fear).
48
What does the hippocampus control/regulate?
New memories.
49
What is the cerebral cortex?
2 hemispheres for higher mental processes (language, memory, thinking, perception).
50
What is the corpus callosum?
The bridge between the right and left hemisphere.
51
What are the lobes of the brain?
- Frontal
- Parietal
- Occipital
- Temporal
52
What does the frontal lobe control/regulate?
- Motor
- Plan/organization
- Impulse control
- Emotion
- Special language centres
53
What does the parietal lobe control/regulate?
Somatosensory cortex
54
What does the occipital lobe control/regulate?
Primary visual cortex
55
What does the temporal lobe control/regulate?
- Primary auditory cortex
| - Memory
56
What are the special language centres of the brain?
- Broca’s Area
| - Wernicke’s Area
57
What does Broca’s area control/regulate?
- Speech production
| - Left frontal lobe
58
What does wernicke’s area control/regulate?
- Speech comprehension
| - Left temporal lobe
59
What is the somatosensory cortex?
Homunculus
60
What does the left hemisphere control/regulate?
- Language
- Mathematics
- Analytical
- Sequential
61
What does the right hemisphere control/regulate?
- Visual spatial
- Music
- Holistic (patterns rather than pieces)
- “hear” language (theme, moral, joke)
- creativity
- intuition
- recognition
- expression of emotion
62
Which side of the body does the right hemisphere control?
Left
63
What side of the body does the left hemisphere control?
Right
64
What is split brain?
Someone who has no corpus callosum
65
Why would you have no corpus callosum?
- surgery for epilepsy
| - born without
66
When you show someone a picture who has split brain, what will they say they see on the right and the left? And why?
On the right: the word or image they saw on that side. Because the left hemisphere is dominant for verbal process.
On the left: say nothing, but would be able to identify the word/object by pointing at it. Because the right hemisphere cannot share the information with the left, so the left won’t know the word.
67
What ade the scanning techniques?
- EEG
- CT Scan
- MRI
- PET
- fMRI
- MEG
68
What are the waves and what do these waves mean on an EEG?
- Beta wave: awake, mental or physical activity
- Alpha wave: awake but relaxed
- Theta wave: light sleep
- Delta wave: deep sleep
69
What does an EEG do?
Gives info for basic brain activity.
| Patients need to be sitting.
70
What does a CT scan do?
Gives a basic picture of the brain.
Used for studying brain structure.
Less quality than MRI.
71
What does an MRI do?
Gives a basic picture of the brain, like CT but the image is clearer.
Used to study brain structure.
72
What does a PET scan do?
Shows how active individual places in the brain are (different shades - different level of creativity, red is most active cause of glucose?).
Can show the function/activity while the patient is doing an activity.
Used to study brain activity.
73
What does an fMRI do?
Shows us where the brain is active while doing different cognitive tasks.
Like MRI but more elaborate details.
Is more precise than MEG.
Can be used for both brain structure and activity but mostly for activity.
74
What does an MEG do?
Shows the different areas of the brain that are active.
Patients don’t have to lay down to use this machine, they can sit and move a bit (it’s more forgiving and still gives accurate results).
Used to study brain activity.
75
Which scanning techniques are used for structure?
- CT
| - MRI
76
Which scanning techniques are used for function (activity)?
- EEG (least good)
- PET
- fMRI (most good)
- MEG
77
What is plasticity?
The ability of the brain to reorganize and compensate for brain damage.
- Reorganize
- Brain damage
- Repair
78
What does the peripheral nervous system do?
PNS connecting CNS to rest of the body
1. Somatic nervous system
2. Autonomic nervous system
79
What’s the endocrine system?
It’s made up of glands and hormones.
80
What does the pituitary gland control/regulate?
- Master gland: turns on other glands
| - Growth hormone
81
What does the thyroid control/regulate?
Metabolism.
82
What does the adrenal gland control/regulate?
Sympathetic system.
83
What does the pancreas control/regulate?
Blood sugar.
84
What does the gonads control/regulate?
Primary and secondary sex characteristics.
85
What are the 5 senses?
- visual
- auditory
- olfaction
- taste
- touch
86
What does sensation refer to?
Sensation refers to the physical stimulation of the sensory receptors.
87
What does perception refer to?
Perception involves interpreting this sensory information.
88
How can we measure perception?
- Psychophysics
- Brain scans
- Single-cell recordings
89
What is psychophysics?
Psycho: our perception.
Physical: environmental energy.
We present a stimulus and ask what the person experiences.
90
What are the two ways to use psychophysics?
- Absolute threshold
| - Difference threshold
91
What is the absolute threshold?
The least amount we can hear/see. When it's too quiet to detect.
92
What's the difference threshold?
The limit we can put the volume before we detect a change. (parents say put volume at 25 but kids can bring it up a certain amount before parents realize it's louder.
93
What are single-cell recordings?
Measuring a single neuron's activity (in animals).
Measure a neuron firing (look at brain at specifically one neuron) can see when that neuron activates, very specific.
94
What is brain imaging (brain scan)?
Structure and/or functional response to experiences.
95
What is the path from sensation to perception?
There's a stimulus energy (light, sound...)
Sensation:
- Sensory receptors: detect and respond to various stimuli
- Transduction: sensory receptors convert external stimulus into neural impulses
Perception:
- Brain: final destination (lobe; visual, auditory, olfactory areas)
96
What activates neurons?
Neurotransmitters.
97
What is subliminal sensation?
Planting ideas into people's minds.
98
What's sensory adaptation?
Becoming less sensitive to an unchanging sensory stimulus over time.
- Smells
- Light/dark
- Inverted glasses
- Background sounds
99
What is bottom-up processing?
Sensation so,
- Sensory receptors
- Sensory neurons (afferent)
- Cortex
100
What is top-down processing?
Perception so,
| - Interpretation
101
What are the top-down processing factors influencing interpretation/perception?
- Perceptual set (expectations)
- Context (in the moment culture)
- Motivation (goals)
- Emotion (half full or half empty)
102
What are the 5 sensory pathways?
- Vision
- Audition
- Tactile
- Smell
- Taste
103
What happens if the sensory pathways are damaged?
Perception is not successful.
104
What is the least mature sense at birth?
Vision.
105
What do you need to detect light?
- Light
- Lens
- Eyeball
- Retina (back of eyeball)
- Receptors (rods and cones)
106
How do you detect light?
Light comes into eye, it bens somewhat by the lens, hits the retina, object of focus goes right to fovea, everything else goes to the peripheries (up and down).
107
Why does the lens change shape?
To focus the light onto the retina.
108
What will happen to the lens when looking at something far?
It doesn't change.
109
What will happen to the lens when looking at something close?
It will bulge.
110
What is presbyopia?
As people age, they put what they're reading further away from their eyes.
111
What is myopia?
- Nearsightedness
| - Image is focused in front of the retina
112
What is hyperopia?
- Farsightedness
| - Image is focused behind the retina
113
What are rods?
- 120 million
- Periphery
- Shades of grey (can't provide info about colour)
- Motion
- Low light (doesn't need string light to be activated)
114
What are cones?
- 6 million
- Fovea
- Colour
- Bright light (need strong light)
- Detail (need cones to read)
115
What are ganglion cells?
- 1 million
| - Optic nerve
116
What is the vision pathway?
- Rods and cones in the retina are activated by light
- Optic nerve (sensory neurons, axons leave eye to bring message)
- Thalamus (traffic director, sends info to proper place)
- Occipital lobe (once arrives, interpretation occurs)
117
What are feature detectors for parallel processing?
- Object
- Colour
- Depth
- Motion
118
What is perceptual organization?
Grouping objects (or other visual elements) together to see the whole, to know what goes together-part of same object-, what's in the background.
119
What are the types of perceptual organization?
- Closure
- Similarity
- Continuation
- Proximity
- Common fate
- Figure-ground
120
What's closure?
Filling in the blanks to put pieces together to form a whole object.
121
What's similarity?
Separating/grouping things by colour, object...
122
What is good continuation?
We can follow a pattern/curve, which allows us to know what the full shape is.
123
What is poor continuation?
Nothing makes sense, we can group by colour, or by continuation (when the ways to group oppose each other).
124
What is proximity?
Can see object because of how close dots are, group things together based on how close they are to each other.
125
What's common fate?
Elements that move together in the same direction, at same time, we automatically group together.
126
What's figure-ground?
When one image has two pictures, see one at a time depending on how you look at it.
127
What's the purpose of colour?
- Meaning
- Emotion
- Guides behaviour
- Object perception
128
Why do we say that objects aren't really coloured at all?
Because it is light that hits the object and either gets absorbed or reflected (bounced off), we see the light that is reflected,
Black - all light absorbed
White - all light reflected
129
What are the colour theories?
- Trichromatic
| - Opponent process
130
What is the trichromatic theory?
There are 3 cones (receptors in retina that are activated by wavelengths) types
- Short (blue)
- Medium (green)
- Long (red)
If we see object as green, the object absorbs the short and long wavelengths and give off medium wavelengths, so we see green.
If we don't see colour, we don't have cones
- If we don't have access to all colours, we have missing cones
131
What is the opponent process theory?
There are colour pairs that are linked in our brain
- Black and white
- Green and red
- Blue and yellow
There's a tug-of-war for what we'll see.
Vision adapts to one colour, so when we look at the opposite colour, we'll still see the first. Or we'll stare at the middle of two colour, look at grey and the colours will switch places.
132
What does colour depend on?
Context
- Inside, outside
- Background
- Lighting
133
What causes colourblindness?
Lack of type of cones
Missing long or medium: red/green colour blind (protanope/deuteranope)
Missing short: blue/yellow colour blind (tritanope)
134
What's achromatopsia?
Having no cones.
| Can be born without, very rare, or inherit
135
What are consequences to achromatopsia?
- Can't see colour
- Can't see small details (read, threading a needle)
- Extremely sensitive to bright light (because rods need low light, not bright)
136
What are the subsections to depth information/cues?
```
Oculomotor (non-visual):
- accomodation
- convergence
Visual:
- binocular
- monocular:
- motion:
- relative motion
- deletion + accreation (occlusion in motion)
- Pictorial/static:
- Interposition/occlusion
- relative height
- relative size
- linear perspective
- Familar size
- atmospheric perspective
- texture
- shadow/shading
```
137
What is accomodation?
When looking at something far the lens flattens out.
When looking at something close the lens bulges.
We don't feel it.
138
What is convergence?
Bring finger close to face, eyes cross, we can feel it.
139
What's occlusion?
What's bigger is what's closer, smaller - farther. Roads get more narrow the farther they are. We know there's a full leaf under the butterfly because of top-down.
140
What's relative height?
In terms of the image or scene, how low or high the object is from the bottom of the picture.
Lower - closer
Higher - farther
141
What's relative size?
How big an object is.
| Usually bigger - closer and smaller - farther
142
What's linear perspective?
It's perspective convergence. Things get more narrow the farther they are.
143
What's familiar size?
When looking at a picture we can guess the hights/size of an object by comparing it to other things in the picture.
144
What's atmospheric perspective?
Darker things are closer.
| Farther things are more hazy, have blue ish tones.
145
What's texture gradient?
We see more details when it's closer and less when it's far.
146
What's shadow/shading?
Shading is used to create depth. Can tell where object is with respect to it's position and the position of its shadow.
147
What are the types of motion?
- Real
- Apparent
- Induced
- Implied
- Illusory
148
What is real motion?
An object is really moving.
149
What is apparent motion?
Object in place A and then place B so we assume it moved there (lights flashing) can see movement in certain directions.
150
What's induced motion?
Stationary object appears to mobe one direction due to neighbour object moving in the opposite direction (real motion but then we perceive motion in the opposite direction when there is none).
151
What's implied motion?
We know there was motion at the time the picture was taken, even though it's a still picture.
152
What's illusory motion?
- Watching motion go up, look at something still, see motion going down: perceiving motion (motion aftereffect)
- We can see diagonal lines moving left and right (real motion), but can also see them moving down creating a plaid pattern
- Colour can create illusory motion
153
What are the types of attention?
- Divided attention
- Selective attention
- Inattentional blindness
- Change blindness
154
What's divided attention?
When attention is being used in too many places at once (driving while listening to music).
155
What's selective attention?
Trying to focus on one thing and eliminate everything else.
156
What's innatentional blindness?
Paying such close attention on one task that we don't notice other information, that's irrelevant.
157
What's change blindness?
An image flashes with one change between the two pictures but we cannot see the change.
A face hidden in coffee beans but we don't see the face.
158
What are the functions of sound?
- survival
- communication
- emotion
- guides behaviour
159
What is the auditory pathway?
- Hair cells in the basilar membrane of the cochlea
- Auditory nerve
- Thalamus
- Temporal lobe
160
What's the outer ear?
- Pinna
- Auditory canal
- Protects tympanic membrane (ear drum)
- Amplifier
161
What's the middle ear?
- Air cavity separating inner from outer ear
- Contains 3 ossicles (small bones) which amplify the vibration for better transmission to the fluid in inner ear:
- Malleus
- Incus
- Stapes
162
What's the inner ear?
- Cochlea
- fluid filled snail like structure set into vibration by the stapes
- Contains basilar membrane which houses hair cells
- Hair cells are the auditory receptors which turn pressure waves into neural signal
163
What are the characteristics of sound?
- Frequency (# of sound waves/ second
- Amplitude (height)
- Number of frequencies
164
What do big (more waves per second) and small (less waves per second) frequencies mean?
Less: Lower pitch
More: Higher pitch
165
What do high and short amplitudes mean?
High: Louder sound
Short: Quieter sound
166
What do the number of frequences change?
The timber
167
What's the tactice pathway?
- Nerves all over inside and out of body
- Spinal cord
- Thalamus
- Parietal lobe
168
What's tactile acuity?
Two-point threshold - minimum separation between two points to perceive them as two units.
(Body areas with high acuity have larger areas of cortical tissue devoted to them (homunculus))
169
What's the touch phenomena?
- 3 systems for tactile perception
- Pain
- Top-down factors on pain
170
What are the three systems we use to perceive objects with touch?
- Sensory system (bottom-up
- Motor system (bottom-up)
- Cognitive system (top-down)
Use bottom-up to feel/move object, use top-down to take past experience and memory to figure out what object is (if no experience can't identify)
171
What are the 3 types of pain?
- Skin (heat, cold, chemicals. severe pressure)
- Tissues and joints
- CNS
172
What are the top-down influences on pain?
- Awareness
- Expectation of pain/relief
- Shifting attention
- Individual differences
- Illusory
- same areas in parietal lobe that activate when we feel physical pain, activate when we feel emotional pain
- Phantom limb (bottom-up?)
173
What's phantom limb?
Patients experience sensations in their amputated limbs (homunculus plasticity)
174
What's the olfactory pathway?
- Receptors in olfactory mucosa (stimulated by chemicals in air, neurotransmitters send signal to)
- Olfactory bulb (part of limbic system)
- Amygdala
- Frontal lobe
175
What are the functions of olfaction?
- Survival
- Identification of objects
- Food readiness
- Illness
176
What do pheromones do?
- Menstrual synchrony
- Babies can identify breast milk of mom on smell alone
- Sexual readiness
- Mate selection
177
How do we identify odors?
We can discriminate 10, 000 odors but cannot label them accurately
- Need context, like colour
178
What's the taste pathway?
- Receptors all over mouth, tongue, throat
- Spinal cord
- Thalamus
- Parietal lobe
179
What are the 5 basic taste qualities?
- Salty
- Sweet
- Sour
- Bitter
- Unami (meaty, brothy, savory, MSG)
180
What are the functions of taste?
- Survival
- Sweet means nutritive
- Bitter means harmful
181
What's the perception of flavour?
- Combination of smell, tactile, sight
- Odor from food in the mouth reaches the olfactory receptors through the connection between nose and throat
- Cold or blocked nose, super hard to taste flavour because there's no internal draft to carry odor molecules
