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Psychology > Test 2 Review Sheet - Psych 2301 (Fall 2013) > Flashcards

Test 2 Review Sheet - Psych 2301 (Fall 2013) Flashcards

1
Q

Term

A

Definition

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2
Q

Accommodation

A

According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, changes made to existing cognitive structures or schemes in order to understand and incorporate new information and experiences.

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3
Q

Assimilation

A

According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the process of incorporating new objects, information, or experiences into the existing cognitive structures or schemes.

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4
Q

Attachment

A

Primary social bond between an infant and his/her caretaker. This is manifested the infant seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress upon separation. Behaviors that foster attachment include signaling, locomotion, and orienting behaviors.

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5
Q

Concrete operational stage

A

Piaget’s third stage of cognitive development during which the child (7-12 years) displays an ability to think logically about concrete events and achieves an understanding of the priniciple of conservation, but is still incapable of abstract thought.

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6
Q

Conservation

A

According to Piaget, the understanding that certain physical properties (e.g., mass, number, and volume) do not change despite changes in form or physical appearance.

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7
Q

Crystallized Intelligence (or Abilities)

A

Abilities that are a function of learning and experience (e.g., vocabulary, general knowledge, and math ability). Believed to be relatively unaffected by physiological processes and therefore, ordinarily do not decline in old age..

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8
Q

Egocentrism

A

Characteristic of preoperational thought involving an inability to consider the point of view of others..

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9
Q

Fetal-Alcohol Syndrome

A

Physical and mental abnormalities (e.g., Mental Retardation, micorcephaly, hyperactivity, cardiac defects) caused by excessive maternal alcohol intake during pregnancy.

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10
Q

Fluid intelligence

A

The ability to see complex relationships and solve problems which you have not previously solved.

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11
Q

Formal operation stage

A

Accorcing to Piaget, the final stage of cognitive development. Characterized by the ability to think abstractly and to use formal (“if/then”) logic. Begins at approximately age 12.

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12
Q

Habituation

A

Process of becoming accustomed (nonreactive) to a stimulus as the result of prolonged exposure to it..

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13
Q

Maturation

A

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior but which are relatively unimpacted by experience.

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14
Q

Object Permanence (Object Concept)

A

Term used by Piaget to describe a child’s realization that an object continues to exist even though it is not in view. Develops during the sensorimotor stage..

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15
Q

Preoperational stage

A

Piaget’s second stage of cognitive development (ages 2-6) during which the child understands complex events and can use symbols (mental representations), but is incapable of mental operations on concrete objects.

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16
Q

puberty

A

The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing.

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17
Q

Schema

A

A cluster of related information representing things, ideas, or concepts which helps organize and interpret information.

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18
Q

Sensorimotor stage

A

The first stage in Piaget’s theory (birth - 2 yrs old) in which the children know the world primarily through their sensory impressions and motor activities.

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19
Q

Stranger Anxiety

A

Fearful response to strangers that normally develops around 8 months of age.

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20
Q

teratogens

A

Any biological (e.g., German measles) or chemical (e.g., various drugs) agent which can reach and harm the developing embryo or fetus.

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21
Q

absolute threshold

A

The least amount of stimulation needed for a stimulus to be detected accurately 50% of the time over a series of trials

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22
Q

bottom-up processing

A

Perceptual analysis which starts with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain’s integration of sensory information. This emphasizes characteristics of the stimulus vs. our concepts &/or expectations.

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23
Q

Closure

A

The Gestalt principle that people will “fill in the gaps” when encountering incomplete figures and will percieved them has complete.

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24
Q

cones

A

Photoreceptors in the retina which are sensitive to color, but not to dim light.

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25
Continuity, Law of
The Gestalt principle that people will tend to prefer perceptions of connected and continuous figures to disconnected and disjointed ones.
26
difference threshold
The minimum difference between two stimuli needed to detect a difference 50% of the time
27
feature detectors
Cells in cerebral cortex with specialize in extracting certain features of a stimulus. For example, a cell might respond only to a diagnonal line or to movement.
28
Figure
The part of a given pattern which "commands attention". This pattern will stand out against the rest of the pattern which will be seen as the background. When we see a bird in a tree, the bird is the figure and the tree is the ground. If we are listening to the violins in an orchestra, the music from the other instruments is the background
29
fovea
The central focus point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
30
gate-control theory
The theory that the spinal cord contains a neurological "gate" that blocks pain signals or allows them to pass onto the brain.
31
Ground
The part (or parts) of a given pattern which does not "command attention". This will be the background against which the figure will be percieved. When we see a bird in a tree, the bird is the figure and the tree is the ground. If we are listening to the violins in an orchestra, the music from the other instruments is the background
32
parallel processing (perception)
The processing of many aspects of a problem at the same time. This is the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision.
33
perception
The process of organizing and interpreting sensory patterns in order to make it meaningful.
34
Perceptual constancy
The ability to see an object has having the same characteristics despite different conditions or different view points.
35
Perceptual set
A tendency to a percieve a stimulus in a certain way. For example, when a person is afraid, they might interpret an unfamiliar sound as a threat.
36
Proximity, Law of
The Gestalt principle that people will tend to group things together perceptually if they are close to each other
37
retina
The thin light-sensitive layer at the back of the eye which contains photoreceptors (rods and cones) and other nerve cells.
38
rods
Photoreceptors in the retina which are sensitive to dim light, but not to color.
39
sensation
The process of how sensory organs are stimulated to produce neural impulses that the brain can interpret.
40
sensory interaction
The idea that imput from one sense might influence the perception of another sense such as the smell of food influencing the perception of taste.
41
signal detection theory
Theory about how we detect certain sensory imput ("signals") amid background stimulation ("noise"). This theory says that sensation is a judgment the sensory system makes about incoming stimulation. Often, this occurs outside of consciousness. In contrast to older theories, signal detection theory takes observer characteristics into account.
42
Similarity, Law of
The Gestalt principle that people will tend to group things if they appear to be similar to us.
43
top-down processing
Processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. Perceptual analysis emphasizing a person's concepts &/or expectations vs. the actual characteristics of the stimulus.
44
transduction
Transforming information from one type energy (e.g., light or sound) to a type of energy (i.e., neural impulses) that the brain can interpret
45
Acquisition
In classical conditioning, the initial stage when a previously neutral stimulus begins to be linked with an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins to trigger the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthing of a reinforced response.
46
Classical Conditioning
Type of conditioning (learning) in which a neutral, or conditioned, stimulus (CS) is paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US) so that the CS eventually elicits a conditioned response (CR) that resembles the response naturally elicitied by the US..
47
Conditioned Response (CR)
Response that is elicited by a conditioned stimulus (CS) as a result of classical conditioning (pairing of the conditioned stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus)..
48
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Previously neutral stimulus that is paired with an unconditioned stimulus during classical conditioning.
49
Extinction
In classical conditioning, the fading of a conditioned response as a result of presenting the conditioned stimulus repeatedly without the unconditioned stimulus. In operant conditioning, the weakening of a response resulting from withholding of reinforcement following the response..
50
Fixed Interval Reinforcement Schedule
Reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement for a response occurs at a fixed (consistent) interval of time, regardless of the number of responses..
51
Fixed Ratio Reinforcement Schedule
Reinforcement schedule in which reinforcement for a response occurs after a fixed number of correct responses (e.g., after every 10th response)..
52
Latent Learning
A theory of learning, advanced by Edward Tolman, which proposes that organisms develop "cognitive maps" that later enable them to achieve their desired goals when they have incentive to do so. This theory differes from tradtional operant theories of learning, in that it suggests that reinforcement, while an important factor in the performance of a response, is not necessary for the learning of a response..
53
Law of Effect
Thorndike's law of learning that states that it is the satisfying consequences of a response that leads to learning (and repetition) of that response.
54
Learning
A lasting change in behavior or mental processes that results from experience
55
modeling
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
56
Negative punishment
Withdrawl of an attractive stimulus after a response with the intent to decrease the intensity or frequency of the response.
57
Negative Reinforcement
Withdrawal of an unplesant (aversive) stimulus after a response with the intent to increase the intensity or frequency of the response.
58
Operant Conditioning
The type of conditioning (learning) in which behavior change takes place as a result of reinforcement or punishment following a behavior.
59
Positive punishment
The application of an aversive stimulus following a behavior with the intent to decrease the intensity or frequency of the behavior.
60
Positive Reinforcement
Application of a reinforcer (reward) each time the organism emits the desired response with the intent to increase the intensity or frequency of the response.
61
Punishment
Presentation of an undesirable stimulus or removal of a desirable stimulus following a behavior for the purpose of decreasing that behavior..
62
Reinforcement/reinforcer
Any event (stimulus) that follows a response and increases the likelihood that the response will recur..
63
Shaping (by Succesive Approximations)
In operant conditioning, progressive alteration (shaping) of responses toward a desired behavior through reinforcement of responses that become increasingly similar to the desired behavior..
64
Spontaneous Recovery
Recurrance of an extinguished conditioned response following a rest period between extinction trials and retesting..
65
Stimulus Discrimination / Discrimination
Learning to respond with a conditioned response only to certain, specific stimuli and not to stimuli which bear some resemblance to it.
66
Stimulus Generalization / Generalization
Learning to respond to stimuli similar to - but not identical to - the original stimulus.
67
Unconditioned Response (UR)
In classical conditioning, a response that is automatically elicted by specific unconditioned stimulus such as a dog salivating at the sight of meat.
68
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
A stimulus that elicits an innate, automatic (unlearned) response.
69
Variable interval reinforcement schedule
Schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs after random or variable time intervals..
70
Variable ratio reinforcement schedule
Schedule of reinforcement in which reinforcement occurs after a random or variable number of responses..
71
Social Learning Theory (Observational learning)
Learning theory that argues that the acquisition of behavior is due (in large part) to observation of others, often in the absence of reinforcement..
72
Anterograde amnesia
total or partial loss of memory for events that recently occurred..
73
Chunking
Organizing information into familiar, meaningful, and manageable units. This makes the task of memory easier and more efficient.
74
Deep processing
When attempting to encode something into memory, focusing on the item's meaning rather than simply the physical or sensory features of the item
75
Explicit memory
Memory of facts and experiences consciously known.
76
Flashbulb memory
A clear and vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event
77
Hippocampus
Part of the brain in the limic system involved in response inhibition, emotional behavior, and most importantly in humans, memory.
78
Implicit memory
Memory which was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness. Often involves skills or routine procedures performed automatically.
79
Long-term memory
The apparently limitless and permanent part of memory which storehouses knowledge, skills, and experiences. This material is organized according to meaning.
80
Memory
The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storing, and retrieving information.
81
Mnemonics
Strategies &/or "tricks" for improving memory , such as the use of a verse of a formula
82
Recall memory
A measuire of memory requiring a person to retrieve information stored previously; type of memory used for fill-in-the-blank tests
83
Recognition memory
A measuire of memory requiring a person to recognize information stored previously; type of memory used for multiple-choice tests.
84
Relearning
A method to assess retention over time by measuring the time needed to relearn material with the time used in the initial learning of the materal.
85
Sensory memory
A memory system tehat momentarily preserves extremely accurate images of sensory information
86
Serial position effect
Tendency to remember the first and last things in a list better than the items in the middle of the list.
87
Short-term memory
The part of memory that can hold a few things briefly, such as a phone number, before it is forgotten.
88
Source amnesia
The inability to remember the source of an event or experience we have had.
89
Proactive interference
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
90
Retroactive interference
The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of previously stored information.
91
Retrograde amnesia
Loss of memory for events extending back in time or occuring just prior to a traumatic event..

Psychology (4 decks)

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