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Geology > Test 2 Material > Flashcards

Test 2 Material Flashcards

1
Q

Metamorphic Rocks

A

formed by increases in pressure, or pressure from igneous, sedimentary, or other metamorphic rocks

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2
Q

How to create Metamorphic Rocks

A

Heat, Pressure, Fluids, and Parent Rock

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3
Q

Heat in Metamorphic rock formation

A

from nearby magma or geothermal gradient, causes minerals to change and recrystallize

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4
Q

Pressure in Metamorphic rock formation

A

two types: confining and differential

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5
Q

Confining Pressure

A

weight of overlaying rocks increases with depth, applied equally in all directions, become smaller and denser material

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6
Q

Differential pressure

A

pressure that is not equal on all sides, rock is distorted and minerals line up, occurs during deformation which happens during mountain building

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7
Q

Fluids in Metamorphic rock formations

A

water and other volatiles, enhances migration of ions and promotes recrystallization of existing minerals

The water comes from pore spaces of sedimentary, fractures in igneous rocks, and hydrous minerals

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8
Q

Parent rock in metamorphic formation

A

mineral composition determines the degree to which a rock will change.

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9
Q

How is Metamorphic rock classified

A

size, shape, arrangement of mineral grains

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10
Q

Foliation

A

planar arrangement of mineral grains, compositional banding, formed by rotation and recrystallization of elongated minerals

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11
Q

Non-Foliated

A

no elongated minerals to align, equidimensional (round-ish) crystals

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12
Q

Slate

A

fine grained (parent material: shale), slaty cleavage

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13
Q

Types of Foliated Rocks

A

Slate, Phyllite, Schist, Gneiss

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14
Q

Phyllite

A

minerals not large enough to visibly identify, glossy appearance

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15
Q

Schist

A

medium to coarse grained, schistosity texture

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16
Q

Gneiss

A

medium to coarse grained, banded appearance, formed under very high temperature and pressur

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17
Q

Metamorphic grade

A

describes the pressure and temperature of which a rock was subjected to, leads to different metamorphic minerals and different foliation textures.

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18
Q

Low grade metamorphic to high grade metamorphic

A

Slate, Phyllite, Schist, Gneiss

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19
Q

Non-Foliated Rocks

A

Marble and Quartzite

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20
Q

Marble

A

coarse, crystalline, parent rock is limestone

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21
Q

Quartzite

A

interlocking quartz grains, parent rock is sandstone

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22
Q

Metamorphic Environments

A

contact metamorphism, and regional metamorphism

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23
Q

contact metamorphism

A

increase temperature from nearby magma, low grade metamorphism

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24
Q

Regional metamorphism

A

associated with mountain building

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25
Q

Metamorphic Zone

A

the texture of a metamorphic rock depends on the pressure and temperature

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26
Q

Index minerals

A

form under certain temperature an pressure, they can help identify the metamorphic processes that a rock was subject to

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27
Q

Metamorphic Facies

A

more specific temperature and pressure range, given by numbers

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28
Q

Wegner’s Lines of Evidence

A

the continents have a jigsaw puzzle fit, evidence of past glaciations, striations, tropical and subtropical environments across N America and NW Africa, coal deposits, distribution of fossils, correlation of geologic units

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29
Q

striations

A

scratches on rock produced by ice moving over it

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30
Q

Wegner’s problems

A

continental rocks are weaker than oceanic rock, rotational forces of the earth are too small to move massive chunks of land

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31
Q

Military contribution to plate tectonics

A

during WWII the military developed sonar technology to map out the ocean floor

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32
Q

bathymetry

A

shape of the sea floor

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33
Q

facts about the ocean floor

A

there are highs and lows, variable sediment thickness on ocean floor, was not old enough to have been accumulating for all of earth’s history

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34
Q

who is younger oceans or continents

A

oceans

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35
Q

Sea floor spreading

A

new ocean crust is made at mid ocean ridges and crust gets older as it moves away

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36
Q

trenches

A

where the sea floor is consumed

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37
Q

mid ocean ridge

A

where sea floor is created

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38
Q

history of magnetic reversals

A

preserved magnetic records are symmetric around mid ocean ridges, they can be used to identify the spreading center

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39
Q

Oldest oceanic crust

A

200 million years

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40
Q

oldest continental crust

A

4 billion years

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41
Q

crust

A

oceanic and continental

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42
Q

mantle

A

below the crust, plastic consitency

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43
Q

the core

A

liquid outer, solid inner, both composed of iron and nickel

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44
Q

lithosphere

A

crust and the upper mantle, it is rigid, brittle and cold

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45
Q

Asthenosphere

A

rest of the mantle, plastic, flows very slowly and not molten

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46
Q

Oceanic vs Continental lithosphere

A

Continental - about 150 km thick and primarily made of granite

Oceanic - from 10-100km thick and primarily made of basalt and gabbro

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47
Q

Plate

A

piece of lithosphere

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48
Q

plate tectonic theory

A

pieces of lithosphere move relative to one another move over the asthenosphere

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49
Q

Identifying plate boundaries

A

earthquakes and volcanoes usually happen at boundaries

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50
Q

How far do plates move each year

A

they move between 2-7 cm, which is as fast as fingernail growth

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51
Q

Types of plate boundaries

A

divergent, convergent, and transform

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52
Q

divergent boundary

A

where two plates are moving away from each other, also known as a constructive boundary, builds new crust

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53
Q

rift

A

divergent boundary on continental crust

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54
Q

ridge

A

divergent boundary on oceanic crust

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55
Q

Convergent boundary

A

where two plates are colliding or running into one another, also known as destructive boundary, carries a lot of volatiles into the mantle and creates volcanoes, oceanic crust dives under continental

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56
Q

volcanic island arc

A

happens when two oceanic plates converge

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57
Q

mountain building event

A

when two continental plates converge

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58
Q

subduction zone

A

ocean-ocean or ocean-continent convergent boundary

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59
Q

transform boundary

A

where plates move past one another, side by side, also known as a conservative boundary

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60
Q

conservative

A

plate material is neither created or destroyed

61
Q

destructive

A

plate material is destroyed

62
Q

constructive

A

plate material is created

63
Q

left vs right lateral

A

describes the relative motion of the plate boundary

64
Q

hotspots (oceanic vs continental)

A

volcanoes in Hawaii are caused by hots spots, plate moves while the hot spot is stationary, so that is why there are multiple islands in a row, they can also come up underneath continents - yellowstone

65
Q

Plate vs Continental boundaries

A

some plates follow the boundaries of continents and some do not

66
Q

Active margin

A

at edges of continents where you have an active plate boundary

67
Q

passive margin

A

transitional area between oceanic and continental crust, minimal tectonic activity

68
Q

Wilson Cycle

A

describes how continents rift apart and then come back together again through time

69
Q

why do plates move?

A

they are largely driven by convection in the mantle, where heat from the core creates convection cells in the mantle and the plates ride the convective flow like a moving sidewalk

70
Q

how do we measure the movement of continents

A

it is measured in relation to hot spots, plates move, hot spots don’t move

71
Q

Importance of plate tectonics

A

explains earth’s major surface processes, distribution of ancient organisms and minerals, geologic distribution of earthquakes, volcanoes, and mountains.

72
Q

Why do we care about volcanoes?

A

they emit huge quantities of gas and debris into the atmosphere, ash produced by eruptions leads to very fertile soil, often located near coastlines where lots of people live, beautiful and interesting but also unpredictable and dangerous

73
Q

Mount Vesuvius

A

Destroyed Pompeii and Herculaneum in 79AD

74
Q

Mount Pelee

A

Martinique (Lesser Antilles) erupted in 1902 and killed everyone except one guy, largest number of casualties (28,000) from a volcano this century

75
Q

Mount Galeras

A

Columbia, erupted in 1993, six geologists and three tourists were inside when it erupted

76
Q

Mount Saint Helens

A

Washington, erupted in 1980, there were 57 casualties, and the damage cost was 2.7 billion dollers

77
Q

General features of Volcanoes

A

Summit opening, vent, fumarole

78
Q

Summit Opening

A

produced by the collapse of the volcano following an eruption, crater, and caldera

79
Q

crater

A

a summit opening less than 1km

80
Q

caldera

A

a summit opening greater than 1 km

81
Q

vent

A

connection between the summit opening and magma chamber

82
Q

fumarole

A

emits gas and smoke

83
Q

Controlling factors on volcano type

A

shape and explosivity of a volcano is controlled by viscosity

84
Q

Viscosity

A

determined by composition: felsic - higher viscosity, mafic - lower viscosity
temperature
volatiles - explosivity of eruption related to how easily gasses escape

85
Q

Mafic lavas

A

gases easily escape, low viscosity, mild eruptions, broad shaped volcanoes, bassalt

86
Q

felsic lavas

A

gasses are trapped, high viscosity, explosive eruptions, steep-sided volcanoes, rhyolite and andesite

87
Q

Products of eruptions

A

lava, pyroclastic materials, pyroclastic flow, and lahar

88
Q

lava

A

magma extruded by the volcano

89
Q

pahoehoe

A

ropey texture lava

90
Q

Aa

A

rough blocky texture lava

91
Q

Pyroclastic materials

A

debris extruded by volcano, bomb-big, lapilli-middle, and ash-small

92
Q

Nuee Ardente (Pyroclastic Flow)

A

hot gasses infused with ash and debris, avalanche like and can reach speeds of 200 km/h, it is like a cloud

93
Q

Lahar

A

volcanic mudflow, mixture of melted snow and volcanic debris, moves down hill

94
Q

Types of Volcanoes

A

Sheild, Composite, Cinder-cone

95
Q

Sheild Volcano

A

broad and slightly dome shaped, cover large areas, mild eruptions of large volumes of mafic lava, Example: Kilauea, Hawaii

96
Q

Composite volcano

A

large, classic-shaped, steep sided volcano, alternating layers of lava and pyroclastic material, violent eruptions of felsic lava, Example: Mount Saint Helens, Mount Fuji

97
Q

Cinder Cone

A

built from ejected pyroclastic material, steep-sloped volcano but small in size, they occur in groups

98
Q

Volcanic Related Feautres

A

Caldera, Lava Domes, lava tube, columnar joints, pillow lava

99
Q

Caldera

A

a steep-walled depression at summit formed by collapse

100
Q

How calderas form

A
  1. magma chamber fills and eruption begins
  2. as eruption proceeds, the magma chamber drains and central portion of volcano collapses
  3. the collapsed area becomes the caldera
101
Q

lava domes

A

bulbous mass of congealed lava, associated with explosive eruptions

102
Q

lava tubes

A

an insulated tube where the outside lava has cooled an solidified, but the lava inside can now flow fast (50km/h), associated with mild mafic eruptions

103
Q

Columnar joints

A

lava contracts as it cools, opening joints, forms hexagonal column that cools down into the lava

104
Q

pillow lava

A

lava rapidly chilled through contact with water, composes most igneous rock in the upper oceanic crust

105
Q

Where are volcanoes found

A

found at ridges and rifts, subduction zones, and above hotspots

106
Q

general volcanic lava composition based on location

A

oceanic setting - mafic
continental setting - intermediate or felsic

107
Q

Ridges and Rifts (divergent boundaries)

A

decompression melting occurs as the plates move apart from each other, large quantities of mafic magma produced

108
Q

Subduction Zones (convergent boundaries)

A

volatiles carried down with plate lead to melting and magma, tends to produce felsic magma, Example: “Ring of Fire”

109
Q

Hotspots (volcanoes)

A

occur within a tectonic plate, associated with mantle plumes, magma composition depends on location, mafic - under oceanic, felsic - under continental

110
Q

Stress

A

force applied to a specific area

111
Q

strain/deformation

A

how rocks change shape over time, a change in volume and or shape, caused by the application of stress

112
Q

Three types of stress

A

compression, tension, shear

113
Q

compression

A

convergent boundaries

114
Q

tension

A

divergent boundaries

115
Q

shear

A

transform boundaries

116
Q

elastic deformation

A

strain is proportional to stress, rock returns to its original shape once stress is removed

117
Q

plastic deformation

A

a rock is permanently deformed and will not return to its original shape, two types: brittle and ductile

118
Q

brittle deformation

A

where the rock snaps or breaks

119
Q

ductile deformation

A

where the rock sort of flows and stretches

120
Q

factors controlling deformation

A

temperature and pressure, time, rock composition/strength

121
Q

temperature and pressure in deformation

A

higher temperature and pressure = ductile deformation
lower temperature and pressure = brittle deformation

122
Q

time in deformation

A

stress applied slowly = ductile deformation
stress applied quickly = brittle deformation

123
Q

geologic structures

A

faults, joints, folds, dome, basin

124
Q

joints

A

result of brittle deformation, no movement, “natural cracks”, tend to occur in groups, helps advance weathering

125
Q

faults

A

result of brittle deformation, normal fault - tension, reverse fault - compression, strike slip fault - shear

126
Q

folds

A

result of ductile deformation, series of wave like undulations caused by deformation and stress

127
Q

anticline

A

folds pointing up like an A

128
Q

syncline

A

folds point down like a smile U

129
Q

oldest rocks location in anticline and syncline

A

oldest rocks are in the middle of an anticline and are on the outside of a syncline

130
Q

Limb

A

“arms” of the fold

131
Q

axial plane

A

imaginary plane that divides the fold in half

132
Q

hinge line

A

line connecting points of maximum curvature

133
Q

dome

A

upwarped rock layers

134
Q

basin

A

down warped rock layers

135
Q

strike

A

the compass direction of the line produced by a intersection of a rock layer with a horizontal plane, measured clockwise from north

136
Q

what type of deformation is higher metamorphic grade

A

ductile - higher metamorphic grade

137
Q

what type of plate boundary is often associated with metamorphism and ductile deformation

A

convergent boundaries

138
Q

Accreted terrains

A

land added to a continent through convergent margins

139
Q

orogenesis

A

term used to describe an episode of mountain building

140
Q

What holds mountains up

A

crust underneath shortens and thickens creating a root

141
Q

Isostasy

A

gravitational balance between the lithosphere and the asthenosphere. tectonic plates “float” at a height dependent on their thickness and density

142
Q

Isostasy Equation

A

(D-block/D-float) = (T-root/T-block)

143
Q

Isostatic rebound

A

happens to glaciers when the ice melt so the curst has to snap back in place

144
Q

Craton

A

crust that has not experienced an orogeny for at least 1 billion years

145
Q

Parts of a Craton

A

shield, and platform

146
Q

shield

A

where Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks are exposed

147
Q

platform

A

where Precambrian rocks covered by a thin layer of sediment

148
Q
A

Geology (5 decks)

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