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Psychology 322 > Test 2 > Flashcards

Test 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Persuasion

A

using verbal arguments to change attitudes and behavior

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2
Q

Attitude (and earlier def)

A

a positive or negative feeling about a person, thing, or idea
Earlier definition:
- Affective: feelings about an attitude object (thing, idea, person)
- Cognitive: beliefs about an attitude object
- Behavioral: predisposition or act

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3
Q

Measurement of attitudes

A

self reports
covert (unobtrusive)
IAT

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4
Q

Self-reports

A

simply ask participants about their attitudes
Adv: easy, straightforward
Disadv: social desirability bias- can minimize with bogus pipeline

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5
Q

Covert (unobtrusive)

A

participants cannot control- includes body language, physiological, deception
Adv: social desirability less likely
Disadv: difficult, limited

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6
Q

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

A

with computer- measure reaction times making associations
Adv: participants cannot control- social desirability unlikely
Disadv: difficult, need computer

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7
Q

How do people process persuasive messages?

A 
Petty & Cacioppo: 2 routes (logical? Fact based?)
Central route
Peripheral route
Chaiken:
Systematic (like central processing)
Heuristic (like peripheral processing)
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8
Q

Central route

A

careful analysis of arguments

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9
Q

Peripheral route

A

little attention to the merits of arguments- influenced by simple cues (ex: attractiveness of the communicator)

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10
Q

Systematic route

A

(like central processing): careful evaluation of arguments

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11
Q

Heuristic route

A

(like peripheral processing): superficial assessment of content - use simple rules of thumb (ex: agree with experts)

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12
Q

What determines the route (type) of processing?

A

Motivation of the recipient:
- High (relevant to target): central (systematic) processing
- Low: peripheral (heuristic) processing
Ability of the recipient to understand the communication
- High: central (systematic) processing
- Low: peripheral (heuristic) processing

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13
Q

Consequences of route (type) of processing

A

Central (systematic) processing produces:
More enduring changes in attitude
More resistance to counterpersuasion

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14
Q

Components of a persuasive communication

A 
the influence of a persuasive appeal depends on “who says what to whom”
Source (who)
Message (what)
Audience (to whom)
Channel (via which mode)
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15
Q

Source of persuasion

A
  • Attractiveness (likeableness): influence via the peripheral (heuristic) route
  • Credibility: expertise and trustworthiness
  • —Credible source more persuasive
  • Sleeper effect
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16
Q

Sleeper effect

A

message from a source that lacks credibility initially ineffective but with time produces significant attitude change– dissociate source and message

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17
Q

Message of persuasion

A 
Fear 
positive emotion
anecdotes or facts
one side or both sides
rhetorical questions
fast talking
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18
Q

fear in a message

A

Fear produces mixed results
LOW fear greatest change in children’s dental hygiene (children)
HIGH fear greatest reduction in cigarette smoking (adults)
- Why the discrepant findings?
—-Inverted U-shape function
—-High fear works when elaborate instructions to avoid the fearful consequences are also provided

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19
Q

Positive emotion in message

A

emphasizing positive consequences of good dental hygiene more effective than fear

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20
Q

Anecdotes or facts? in message

A

anecdotes that present vivid images are more persuasive

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21
Q

One side or both sides? in message

A

depends on:
Whether audience initially agrees or disagrees
Audience’s knowledge
2 sided is better if they’re educated about the issue

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22
Q

Rhetorical questions in message

A

intensifies audience’s reaction
If audience initially agrees, then enhances persuasion - if audience initially disagrees, then it backfires
Enhances effectiveness of strong arguments, but weakens effectiveness of weak arguments

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23
Q

Fast talking in message

A

makes:
Strong arguments less persuasive
Weak arguments more persuasive

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24
Q

Audience of persuasion

A

No reliable, simple effects found
Often interact with other variables:
Intelligent people are less easily persuaded than less intelligent people when they receive a simple message but are more persuaded by complex messages
- need for cognition

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25
Q

Need for cognition

A

individuals with a high need for cognition are more influenced by the merits of a persuasive communication than are those with low need for cognition

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26
Q

Channel of communication in persuasion

A
  • Complex message: both comprehension and persuasion were greatest when a message was written rather than audio or videotaped
  • Simple message: comprehension was the same no matter what mode, but persuasion greatest in the videotape condition and least in the written
  • Likable communicator: most persuasive when message was presented by videotape or audiotape rather than written
    Unlikeable communicator: most persuasive when message was written
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27
Q

Resisting persuasion

A

Forewarning: forewarned = less persuaded than those not forewarned
- Anticipatory cognitive responding
Inoculation
Application: resisting pressures = effective

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28
Q

Anticipatory cognitive responding

A

forewarning allows time to generate counterarguments

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29
Q

Inoculation

A

expose people to weak arguments that attack their attitudes
Stimulates counterarguments
Builds resistant to stronger attacks

30
Q

Conditions under which attitudes may predispose behavior

A
  • The relevance of an attitude to a behavior is salient (dont think about it at time of behavior)
  • The attitude is strong: based on experience, extensive knowledge, or vested interest
  • A public commitment to an attitude is made
  • Attitudes and behavior are measured at the same level of specificity (context)
31
Q

Cognitive dissonance

A

inconsistency among self-relevant cognitions is upsetting and motivates change
The way that they are behaving doesn’t align with underlying attitude
Attitude + behavior = dissonance

32
Q

Induced compliance (insufficient justification)

A

taking a small inducement for counter- attitudinal behavior motivates justifying the behavior
(Dissonance)

33
Q

Free- choice (post-decision)

A

after making a choice, the unattractive qualities of the chosen alternative and the attractive qualities of the rejected alternatives create dissonance
Motivates justifying the choice
(dissonance)

34
Q

Effort justification

A

expanding effort for no benefit creates dissonance
Motivates justifying effort
(dissonance)

35
Q

Self- perception

A

People make self-attributions by observing:
- Their own behavior
- the circumstances under which their behavior occurs
If the situation seems:
- compelling, then infer little about underlying attitudes
- not compelling, then infer underlying attitudes

36
Q

Interpersonal simulations of dissonance studies

A

Hypothesis: a person engaged in a behavior makes attributions just like an outside observer
Found that uninvolved observers can predict dissonance results

37
Q

Overjustification effect

A

large incentives can undermine intrinsic motivation

38
Q

Impression management

A

motive to gain status and influence over others

Behavior influences only the external expression of attitudes- people try to appear consistent (not actually consistent)

39
Q

Self- affirmation

A

need to validate one’s integrity
Dissonance situations threaten a person’s self-concept
Self- affirmation can be achieved in a number of ways, not just by resolving dissonance

40
Q

Helping

A

behavior that’s intended to aid another (AKA prosocial behavior)

41
Q

Bystander effect

A

the presence of other bystanders inhibits helping

42
Q

Bystander info processing/ decisions

A
  • Notice: other bystanders are a distraction
  • Interpret - pluralistic ignorance: bystanders misled by each others’ non-response
  • Assume responsibility – diffuse responsibility to other bystanders
  • Decide how to help: maybe others are more competent
    Implement decision: avoid looking foolish
43
Q

Personality vs. Situational Determinants

A

(Look at Lesko)

Only factor that predicted helping: not in a hurry

44
Q

Arousal/ cost-reward model

A

Witnessing an emergency is upsetting - motivates bystanders to relieve their distress in the most cost effective manner

LOOK AT TABLE

45
Q

Evolutionary psychology

A
  • helping is innate
  • Behavioral tendencies, including helping, are genetically determined
  • Just as physical traits are “naturally selected”, so are behaviors
  • — through natural selection, animals developed an intra- species fighting instinct
  • kin selection
  • reciprocal altruism
46
Q

How can altruism (self-sacrificing help) be explained?

A

Kin selection: natural selection favors animals who show altruism toward genetically related individuals - genes survive
Reciprocal altruism: natural selection will favor a species whose members help each other

47
Q

Operant (instrumental) conditioning

A

reinforcement increases helping

48
Q

Social learning

A

observe and imitate models of helpfulness

49
Q

Negative state relief

A

Altruism or egoism?
“Altruism as hedonism” (egoistic)
- Negative mood does not increase helping in young children but does for older children
- For adults, negative mood increases helping when cost/ benefit ratio is optimal

50
Q

“Altruism as hedonism” (egoistic)

A

motivated to make oneself feel better (helping to feel good about themselves)
Learn to associate helping with rewards

51
Q

Aggression

A 
harm intent- a behavior intended to harm another
Can be:
Physical or verbal
Direct or indirect
Active or passive
52
Q

Gender difference in aggression

A

Males are more likely to be physically aggressive

Females are more likely to engage in relational aggression

53
Q

Instinct theories

A

Freud
- Death instinct conflicts with life instinct; therefore, direct aggression toward others
- Catharsis
- Evolutionary psychology
- Territoriality
- Dominance hierarchy
Inhibitions against aggression have also developed
Reduction of aggression through catharsis

54
Q

Catharsis

A

release of aggressive tension through direct or vicarious expression (not supported)

55
Q

Territoriality

A

disperse the species so that resources can be used most efficiently

56
Q

Dominance hierarchy

A

strongest and most vigorous males get choice of females for mating

57
Q

Drive (Arousal) Theories: Original Frustration-Aggression

A

Frustration
Aggression is always the result of frustration
Frustration is the only cause of aggression
Aggression reduced through catharsis

58
Q

Frustration

A

blocking a goal-directed behavior

59
Q

Revised frustration-aggression hypothesis

A

Aggression-eliciting cues

Argued against the notion that aggressive tension can be cathartically released

60
Q

Aggression-eliciting cues

A

stimuli associated with aggression or an anger instigator

61
Q

Excitation transfer

A

arousal arising in one situation carries over to a second situation
Residual arousal intensifies emotional reactions, therefore, increasing the likelihood of responding aggressively in an annoying situation

62
Q

Rumination

A
  • Repeatedly thinking about and reliving an anger-inducing event
  • Focusing on angry thoughts and feelings
  • Planning or imagining revenge
    Effect:
  • Reduced self-control
  • Increase aggression of all kinds
    Triggers:
  • Disinhibitors - ex: alcohol
63
Q

Culture of Honor

A

socialization emphasizing honor and social status and aggression as a means of protecting one’s honor
- especially for males
- american south and west
Associated with elevated aggression and violence
- Believe aggression is a good thing if someone has dishonored them
- Lesko

64
Q

Cognitive-Neoassociationistic Model

A

fight or flight

look at diagram

65
Q

Integrative model

A

look at diagram
trigger
readiness to aggress vs. inhibitions

66
Q

Social Learning

A

aggression is learned primary through observation and imitation (modeling)

67
Q

When is social learning most likely?

A
  • The behavior gets the observer’s ATTENTION- influenced by attractiveness and power of the model
  • The observer can RETAIN what is observed- likely when a behavior is simple or repeated
  • The observer gets a chance to REHEARSE the behavior
  • There is MOTIVATION to perform the behavior- reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement, self-reinforcement
68
Q

What does NOT work to control aggression?

A

punishment

catharsis

69
Q

Punishment in controlling aggression

A

only works temporarily under circumstances that are difficult to achieve (immediate, strong, certain)
- Children who receive physical punishment at home are more aggressive at school
Punishment often backfires because:
- Perceived as an attack
- Models aggression

70
Q

Catharsis in controlling aggression

A

Fails to reduce aggression because:

  • Increases arousal
  • Expressing anger toward another person triggers retaliation
  • Develop hostile disposition and aggressive habits
  • “release” of aggressive tension by viewing others being aggressive provides models of aggression
  • “Talking it out” can backfire because by doing so the emotion is cognitively rehearsed and perpetuated (rumination)
71
Q

What does work well to control aggression?

A
  • social learning theory: exposure to non aggressive models
  • Counterattitudinal advocacy
  • Apologies
  • Incompatible responses: empathy, humor
  • Distraction
72
Q

Counterattitudinal advocacy

A

Application of cognitive dissonance

Ask children to argue that TV violence is unrealistic and that aggression is a bad way to settle disputes

Psychology 322 (4 decks)

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