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Psychology 322 > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

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1
Q

Stereotypes

A

oversimplified and over-generalized beliefs about a category of people

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2
Q

Prejudice

A

negative attitude (feelings or evaluation) about a category of people

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3
Q

Discrimination

A

unfair behavior or policy directed toward a category of people

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4
Q

racism, sexism, and ageism

A

negative stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination directed toward racial minorities, women, and the elderly, respectively

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5
Q

Outgroup homogeneity effect

A

recognize fewer individual differences among members of out-groups than among members of in-groups
“They are all alike”

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6
Q

Illusory correlation

A

relationships that are thought to exist when in fact they do not or are believed to be stronger than they really are

  • People perceive more of a correlation between distinctive events than events that are more commonplace
  • Minorities and bad behavior are both distinctive; therefore, people overestimate the relation between the two
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7
Q

Ultimate attribution error

A

A tendency to attribute the positive actions of in-group members and the negative actions of out-group members to enduring personal characteristics, perhaps even genetically determined traits
- In contrast, there is a tendency to “explain away” the negative actions of in-group members

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8
Q

prejudice cognitive factors

A

outgroup homogeneity effect
illusory correlation
ultimate attribution error

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9
Q

prejudice motivational factors

A 
Competition
- Realistic group conflict theory
- Relative deprivation
-- egoistic deprivation
-- fraternal deprivation
Social identity
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10
Q

Realistic group conflict theory

A

group interests that are incompatible with the interests of other groups give rise to perceived threat, distrust, hard feelings, scapegoating, and hostile behavior

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11
Q

Relative deprivation

A

occurs when people perceive that others have something they themselves both want and feel they deserve, but do not possess

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12
Q

Egoistic deprivation

A

occurs when an individual feels that he or she is deprived relative to others

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13
Q

Fraternal deprivation

A

occurs when an individual feels that his or her social group is deprived relative to other groups

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14
Q

Social Identity

A
  • in-group favoritism is motivated by a need to maintain or enhance self-esteem
  • Self-esteem derived in part from social identity
  • social identity derived from perceived attributes and accomplishments of in-groups
  • Minimal groups studies – e.g., over-estimators and under-estimators
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15
Q

prejudice social factors

A

socialization

conformity

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16
Q

Socialization

A

individuals learn and internalize the values and mores of society
By the time children are 3 or 4 years old
- Aware of race categories
- Exhibit preferences for some categories

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17
Q

Conformity

A

individuals who report feeling the most social pressure from family, friends, or peers to be racially prejudices, tend to be the most prejudiced

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18
Q

Confirmation bias

A

believing is seeing

Perceive evidence for expected events even in instances that offer little or no objective substantiation

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19
Q

Self-fulfilling prophecy

A

occurs when an expectation that an event is likely to occur somehow helps to bring about the anticipated event

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20
Q

Subtyping

A

view members of a group who do not fit a stereotype as rare exceptions to the rule
When evidence that disconfirms a stereotype is concentrated in a few individuals it does less to change stereotypic beliefs than when it is dispersed over many individuals

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21
Q

How can stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination be reduced?

A

Contact
Self- regulation
Perspective taking

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22
Q

Contact hypotheses

A
  • Simple form: bringing people of different social groups in close contact with one another will help dispel stereotypes and reduce prejudice and discrimination
  • Sophisticated form: conditions
  • –Equal status
  • –Interdependence (common goals)
  • –Acquaintance potential
  • –Sanction by authority
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23
Q

Jigsaw classroom

A
  • Divide the class into small heterogeneous groups
  • Within each group, give each student one part of a lesson (a piece of the puzzle)
  • Test each student on entire lesson (must get other pieces to the puzzle)
  • Students teach each other their parts of the lesson (necessitates interdependence)
  • Each student’s part (piece) is equally important - promotes equal status
24
Q

Self-regulation

A

For people who view themselves as unprejudiced:

  • Acting in a prejudiced manner sensitizes them to cues that warn when they might act in a prejudiced manner again
  • Forewarned by these cues, these people suppress their prejudiced responses and replace them with non prejudiced ones
  • Becomes automatic over time
25
Q

Social psychology of the courtroom

A

Social cognition
Persuasion
Group dynamics

26
Q

Jury selection

A

use community surveys to help lawyers influence jury selection at 3 stages:

  1. Change of venue: demonstrate the influence of bias in the community
  2. Composition challenge: show that a jury panel is not representative of the community
  3. Voir dire: for peremptory challenges use data on correlations between demographic factors and attitude-relevant factors
27
Q

Death qualifying voir dire

A

in order to qualify for jury duty on a capital case a juror must state that they could vote for the death penalty when the legal standards for that penalty are met
Death qualification may bias juries

28
Q

Factors influencing accuracy of eyewitness testimony

A 
Acquisition: the initial perception
Cross-ratial identification bias
- Arousal
- Weapon-focus
- Expectations 
Storage: retaining memory over time
Misinformation effect
- Post event info - reconstructive memory
Biasing effects of lineups and composite sketches
Retrieval - unconscious transferrence
29
Q

Biasing effects of lineups and composite sketches

A

Pick person who is distinctive
- Simultaneous lineups lead to more false identifications than do sequential lineups
Photo-based lineup - if witness first looks at mugshots then shown a lineup, they are more likely to pick a person who was included in the mugshots, even if not the culprit
Instructions that compel picking someone leads to false identifications
Best to use double-blind procedures for lineups
Composite sketches
Seldom look like culprit
Process misleads (confuses)

30
Q

Unconscious transference

A

a person seen in one situation is confused with a person seen in another situation

31
Q

Confessions

A

have a big weight in trials
Sometimes false, particularly when
- Pressured- often by presenting false evidence
- Befriended by interrogator- sympathy, victim blame, consequences

32
Q

Reasons to make false confessions

A

Compliance: escape stressful situation
Internalization: come to believe that committed the crime

33
Q

Who serves as an expert in reliability of eyewitness accounts

A

advanced degree in perception and memory or social psychology with relevant publications

34
Q

Does expert testimony work?

A

Simulation studies indicate that it does. Juries:

  • Deliberate linger
  • Are more skeptical about eyewitness testimony
  • Less likely to judge a defendant as guilty
35
Q

Inadmissible evidence

A

studies with mock jurors generally indicate that jurors are influenced by:
Pretrial publicity
Evidence that is heard but then ruled as inadmissible

36
Q

Jury deliberations

A

Selecting a foreperson
Group polarization
Leniency bias
Influence of size and decision rules

37
Q

Who gets selected as foreperson

A

Those with high status occupations
Males
First person to speak
Those who sit at end of table

38
Q

12 vs. 6 person mock juries

A

12 person juries:
Had more minority representation
Deliberated longer
Were less likely to reach a unanimous verdict

39
Q

Comparison of unanimous (12-0) vs. quorum juries (10-2 or 8-4)

A 
Quorum juries:
Spent less time discussing the case
More time voting
Rated fellow jurors as more close-minded
Were less confident about verdict
Were more likely to deliberate with a “bullying” style
40
Q

Learned helplessness

A

experience with uncontrollable outcomes leads to 3 kinds of deficits:

  1. Cognitive: fail to learn connections between behavior and outcomes
  2. Motivational: why try?
  3. Emotional: depression
41
Q

Attribution retraining

A

Observed the learned helplessness syndrome in some school children

  • Tended to give up rather than persisting
  • Attributed failure to uncontrollable failures (lack of ability) instead of controllable factors (lack of effort)
  • Attribution retraining: gave students a mix of easy and difficult math problems
  • Whenever a student failed on a problem, the teacher said “you should have tried harder”
42
Q

Reformulated helplessness

A

Learned helplessness (hopelessness) most likely to occur in people with a depressive explanatory style
Habitually attribute negative outcomes to causes that are:
- internal : my fault
- Stable: will not change
- Global: other aspects of my life will go badly too

43
Q

Attributional style therapy

A
  • Ask clients to perform a series of tasks and to explain their successes and failures
  • Point out the client’s self-defeating attributional style and explain the advantages of a more self-enhancing style
  • Have clients keep a diary of daily successes and failures and explain why they occur
  • Encourage clients to attribute successes internally and failures externally
44
Q

Vicarious extinction

A

Used to cure phobias
Based on social (observational) learning
Strategy:
- Show fearful person a model who deals with object of fear without any consequences
- Through the model’s experience the patient’s fear should be vicariously extinguished
Coping models more effective than fearless models

45
Q

Leading causes of death 1900 vs. 2000

A 
In 1900- infectious diseases
- Pneumonia and influenza
- Tuberculosis
- Diarrhea, gastrointestinal enteritis
In 2000- influenced by lifestyle
- Heart disease
- Cancer
- Strokes
- Smoking= Leading preventable cause of death
46
Q

Lifestyle interventions

A

designed to help change unhealthy behavior to healthy behavior

47
Q

Preventing smoking

A

social influences approach
Use vignettes to apply:
- Attitude inoculation: expose teens to social pressures to smoke
- Social learning: show attractive teen models resisting pressures to smoke
- Public commitment: ask teens to announce their intentions not to smoke

48
Q

Hawthorne studies

A

Designed from the standpoint of taylor’s ideas about “scientific management”

  • Serendipitous finding: workers brought to special test rooms increased productivity no matter what change was made (e.g., increased or decreased lighting)
  • Brought emphasis on human relations
49
Q

Hawthorne effect

A

Specific: increased productivity when special attention is paid to workers
General: changes in research participants’ behavior that result because the participants know they are being studied

50
Q

worker participation

A

allow workers to participate in decision making
associated with
- high levels of commitment, job satisfaction, motivation, performance
- low levels of emotional distress, turnover
- however most studies correlational

  • pajama factory study: Participation lead to increased productivity, reduced aggression toward management, less absenteeism, fewer work slow-downs, fewer workers quitting
    Best results with total participation
51
Q

Leadership: contingency theory

A

Leadership style should match situation
Leadership style (assessed with the least preferred coworker scale)
- Task oriented: concerned about getting job done
- Relationship oriented: concerned about relationships
Situational control: favorableness depends on
- Leader-member relations
- Task structure
- Power

52
Q

Leader match

A

application of contingency theory
Leaders use self-help manual and assess:
- own leadership style
- Leadership situation
If situation optimal for leaders style, then should be successful
If mismatch, follow the recommendations in manual to change situation

53
Q

Leadership: social learning

A
  • Leadership can be learned by observing effective leaders
  • Use videotaped vignettes of model supervisor interacting with employees in particular situations
  • Assessment: supervisors randomly assigned to program for 9 weeks or to a control condition
  • Results: those in program exhibited better leadership skills on written tests, role playing tests, and in actual job performance
54
Q

Lesko 18- contact hypothesis

A
  • Contact hypothesis: prejudice stems from a lack of knowledge and exposure; increased interaction would lead to a reduction in hostility and prejudice
  • Purpose: test the effect of intergroup contact on automatically activated racial attitudes
  • Optimal conditions for intergroup contact: equal status, cooperation, common goals, and support of authorities
    ( College dormitory )
  • Goals: assess the nature of interracial relationships and test the effect of intergroup contact on automatically activated attitudes in a real-life situation
  • Measures: questionnaire, inventory of intergroup anxiety toward african americans, and priming procedure (unobtrusive)
  • Results: those in interractial rooms showed significant reduction in intergroup anxiety
    – Automatically activated racial attitudes of white students in interracial rooms became more positive toward african americans
    – Decreased intergroup anxiety
    – Support for contact hypothesis
55
Q

Lesko 25 - Stanford Prison Experiment

A
  • We tend to attribute others’ behavior to their personality, but the SITUATION is more responsible
  • Student volunteers randomly assigned to play the role of prisoner or guard in setting designed to convey a sense of the psychology of imprisonment
  • Abuse and dominance from guard
  • Had to end the experiment after 6 days (supposed to be 2 weeks) because it got out of control
  • Dehumanization and anonymity
56
Q

Lesko 40 - False Confessions

A

Reasons:
- People give up miranda rights and speak when could remain silent
- If they think conviction is inevitable no matter what
- Accused can come to believe that they actually did commit the crime
- The longer the police interrogate a suspect, the more likely the suspect is to become convinced himself
- Product of a false memory
Jurors more likely to vote guilty if a confession is included in the trial
Confessions can have a powerful effect on eyewitnesses
- False confessions can affect the memories of people who are potential alibis for defendants
Subjects significantly less likely to vote guilty when shown the entire interrogation
- Videotaping can protect defendant (Confession contaminates evidence)

57
Q

Lesko 45 - Resilience

A
  • Studied the contribution of a range of factors (cognitive, emotional, social support, coping) to psychological resilience
  • Internet sample about 9/11
  • Psychological resilience: the process of, capacity for, or outcome of successful adaptation despite challenging or threatening circumstances
  • Outcome variables: psychological well-being, global distress
  • Predictor variables: demographics, media exposure, emotional suppression, cognitive outlook, social support, coping
  • Early negative changes in worldview was the most important contributor among the variables examined
  • Person most likely to be resilient was someone who was open to their emotional reactions, who inhabited a social environment that did not constrain expression and discussion of those reactions, and who did not suffer a damaged worldview

Psychology 322 (4 decks)

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