Test #2 Flashcards
minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for the stimulus to be detected 50% of the time
absolute threshold
continuation of a visual sensation after removal of the stimulus
afterimage
height of a wave
amplitude
thin strip of tissue within the cochlea that contains the hair cells which serve as the sensory receptors for the auditory system
basilar membrane
two-eared cue to localize sound
binaural cue
slightly different view of the world that each eye receives
binocular disparity
point where we cannot respond to visual information in that portion of the visual field
blind spot
system in which perceptions are built from sensory input
bottom-up processing
fluid-filled, snail-shaped structure that contains the sensory receptor cells of the auditory system
cochlea
electronic device that consists of a microphone, a speech processor, and an electrode array to directly stimulate the auditory nerve to transmit information to the brain
cochlear implant
failure in the vibration of the eardrum and/or movement of the ossicles
conductive hearing loss
specialized photoreceptor that works best in bright light conditions and detects color
cone
deafness from birth
congenital deafness
genetic disorder that results in the inability to experience pain
congenital insensitivity to pain (congenital analgesia)
transparent covering over the eye
cornea
partial or complete inability to hear
deafness
logarithmic unit of sound intensity
decibel (dB)
ability to perceive depth
depth perception
all the electromagnetic radiation that occurs in our environment
electromagnetic spectrum
segmenting our visual world into figure and ground
figure-ground relationship
small indentation in the retina that contains cones
fovea
number of waves that pass a given point in a given time period
frequency
field of psychology based on the idea that the whole is different from the sum of its parts
Gestalt psychology
we are more likely to perceive continuous, smooth flowing lines rather than jagged, broken lines
good continuation
auditory receptor cell of the inner ear
hair cell
cycles per second; measure of frequency
hertz (Hz)
failure to notice something that is completely visible because of a lack of attention
inattentional blindness
middle ear ossicle
icus (anvil)
signal that some type of tissue damage has occurred
inflammatory pain
sound coming from one side of the body is more intense at the closest ear because of the attenuation of the sound wave as it passes through the head
intramural level difference
small difference in the time at which a given sound wave arrives at each ear
intramural timing difference
colored portion of the eye
iris
difference in stimuli required to detect a difference between the stimuli
just noticeable difference
perception of the body’s movement through space
kinesthesia
curved, transparent structure that provides additional focus for light entering the eye
lens
perceive depth in an image when two parallel lines seem to converge
linear perspective
middle ear ossicle
malleus (hammer)
touch receptor that responds to pressure and lower frequency vibrations
Meissner’s corpuscle
touch receptor that responds to light touch
Merkel’s disk
one-earned cue to localize sound
monaural cue
cue that requires only one eye
monocular cue
results in a degeneration of inner ear structures that can lead to hearing loss, tinnitus, vertigo, and an increase in pressure within the inner ear
Meniere’s Disease
pain from damage to neurons of either the peripheral or central nervous system
neuropathic pain
sensory signal indicating potential harm and maybe pain
nociception
bulb-like structure at the tip of the frontal love, where the olfactory nerves begin
olfactory bulb
sensory cell for the olfactory system
olfactory receptor
color is coded in opponent pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, and red-green
opponent-process theory of color perception
X-shaped structure that sits just below the brain’s ventral surface; represents the merging of the optic nerves from the two eyes and the separation of information from the two sides of the visual field to the opposite side of the brain
optic chiasm
carries visual information from the retina to the brain
optic nerve
touch receptor that detects transient pressure and higher frequency vibrations
Pacinian corpuscle
ability to discriminate among different figures and shapes
pattern perception
highest point of a wave
peak (also crest)
way that sensory information is interpreted and consciously experienced
perception
educated guess used to interpret sensory information
perceptual hypothesis
chemical message sent by another individual
pheromone
light-detecting cell
photoreceptor
visible part of the ear that protrudes from the head
pinna
perception of a sound’s frequency
pitch
different portions of the basilar membrane are sensitive to sounds of different frequencies
place theory of pitch perception
organize perceptions into complete objects rather than as a series of parts
principle of closure
perception of body position
proprioception
things that are close to one another tend to be grouped together
proximity
small opening in the eye through which light passes
pupil
light-sensitive lining of the eye
retina
specialized photoreceptor that works well in low light conditions
rod
touch receptor that detects stretch
Ruffini corpuscle
what happens when sensory information is detected by a sensory receptor
sensation
failure to transmit neural signals from the cochlea to the brain
sensorineural hearing loss
not perceiving stimuli that remain relatively constant over prolonged periods of time
sensory adaptation
change in stimulus detection as a function of current mental state
signal detection theory
things that are alike tend to be grouped together
similarity
middle ear ossicle
stapes (aka stirrup)
message presented below the threshold of conscious awareness
subliminal message
grouping of taste receptor cells with hair-like extensions that protrude into the central pore of the ____ _____
taste bud
sound’s frequency is coded by the activity level of a sensory neuron
temporal theory of pitch perception
temperature perception
thermoception
sound’s purity
timbre
interpretation of sensations is influences by available knowledge, experiences, and thoughts
top-down processing
conversion from sensory stimulus energy to action potential
transduction
color vision is mediated by the activity across the three groups of cones
trichromatic theory of color perception
lowest point of a wave
trough
eardrum
tympanic membrane
taste for monosodium glutamate
umami
spinning sensation
vertigo
contributes to our ability to maintain balance and body posture
vestibular sense
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that we can see
visible spectrum
length of a wave from one peak to the next peak
wavelength
period of initial learning in classical conditioning in which a human or an animal begins to connect a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus will begin to elicit the conditioned response
acquisition
form of learning that involves connecting certain stimuli or events that occur together in the environment
associative learning (classical and operant conditioning)
learning in which the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired or associated with the behavior
classical conditioning
mental picture of the layout of the environment
cognitive map
response caused by the conditioned stimulus
conditioned response (CR)
stimulus that elicits a response due to its being paired with an unconditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus (CS)
rewarding a behavior every time it occurs
continuous reinforcement
decrease in the conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the conditioned stimulus
extinction
behavior is rewarded after a set amount of time
fixed interval reinforcement schedule
set number of responses must occur before a behavior is rewarded
fixed ration reinforcement schedule
when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change
habituation
using a conditioned stimulus to condition a neutral stimulus
higher-order conditioning (aka second-order conditioning)
unlearned knowledge, involving complex patterns of behavior; are thought to be more prevalent in lower animals than in humans
instinct
learning that occurs, but it may not be evident until there is a reason to demonstrate it
latent learning
behavior that is followed by consequences satisfying to the organism will be repeated and behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences will be discouraged
law of effect
number of responses differ before a behavior is rewarded
variable ratio reinforcement schedule
process where the observer sees the model punished, making the observer less likely to imitate the mode’s behavior
vicarious punishment
process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model’s behavior.
vicarious reinforcement
problem-solving strategy characterized by a specific set of instructions
algorithm
aligned with academic problem solving and computations
analytical intelligence
faulty heuristic in which you fixate on a single aspect of a problem to find a solution
anchoring bias
concept that is defined by a very specific set of characteristics
artificial concept
faulty heuristic in which you make a decision based on information readily available to you
availability heuristic
thinking, including perception, learning, problem solving, judgement, and memory
cognition
field of psychology dedicated to studying every aspect of how people think
cognitive psychology
set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time
cognitive script (aka event schema)
category or grouping of linguistic information, objects, ideas, or life experiences
concept
faulty heuristic in which you focus on information that confirms your beliefs
confirmation bias
providing correct or established answers to problems
convergent thinking
ability to produce new products, ideas, or inventing a new, novel solution to a problem
creative intelligence
ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions and possibilities
creativity
characterized by acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it
crystallized intelligence
ability to think “outside the box” to arrive at novel solutions to a problem
divergent thinking
learning disability that causes extreme difficulty in writing legibly
dysgraphia
common learning disability in which letters are not processed properly by the brain
dyslexia
ability to understand emotions and motivations in yourself and others
emotional intelligence
set of behaviors that are performed the same way each time
event schema
observation that each generation has a significantly higher IQ than the previous generation
Flynn effect
inability to see an object as useful for any other use other than the one for which it was intended
functional fixedness
set of rules that are used to convey meaning through the use of a lexicon
grammar
mental shortcut that saves time when solving a problem
heuristic
belief that the event just experienced was predictable , even though it really wasn’t
hindsight bias
score on a test designed to measure intelligence
intelligence quotient (IQ)
communication system that involves using words to transmit information from one individual to another
language
the words of a given language
lexicon
continually using an old solution to a problem without results
mental set
smallest unit of language that conveys some type of meaning
morpheme
Gardner’s theory that each person possess at least eight types of intelligence
Multiple Intelligences Theory
mental groupings that are created “naturally” through your experiences
natural concept
administering a test to a large population so data can be collected to reference the normal scores for a population and its groups
norming
extension of a rule that exists in a given language to an exception to the rule
overgeneralization
basic sound unit of a given language
phoneme
street smarts
practical intelligence
method for solving problems
problem-solving strategy
best representation of a concept
prototype
each person’s response to the environment is unique based on his or her genetic makeup
range of reaction
faulty heuristic in which you stereotype someone or something without a valid basis for your judgement
representative bias
subset of the population that accurately represents the general population
representative sample
set of expectations that define the behaviors of a person occupying a particular role
role schema
mental construct consisting of a cluster or collection of related concepts
schema
plural-schemata
process by which we derive meaning from morphemes and words
semantics
measure of variability that describes the difference between a set of scores and their mean
standard deviation
method of testing in which administration, scoring, and interpretation of results are consistent
standardization
manner by which words are organized into sentences
syntax
problem-solving strategy in which multiple solutions are attempted until the correct one is found
trial and error
Sternberg’s theory of intelligence; three facets of intelligence: practical, creative and analytical
triarchic theory of intelligence
heuristic in which you begin to solve a problem by focusing on the end result
working backwards
lapses in memory that are caused by breaks in attention or our focus being somewhere else
absentmindedness
input of sounds, words, and music
acoustic encoding
loss of long-term memory that occurs as the result of disease, physical trauma, or psychological trauma
amnesia
loss of memory for events that occur after the brain trauma
anterograde amnesia
strong emotions trigger the formation of strong memories and weaker emotional experiences from weaker memories
arousal theory
memory model that states we process information through three systems: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory
Atkinson-Shiffrin model (A-S)
encoding of informational details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words
automatic processing
how feelings and view of the world distort memory of past events
bias
memory error in which you cannot access stored information
blocking
organizing information into manageable bits or chunks
chunking
formulation of new memories
construction
type of long-term memory of facts and events we personally experience
declarative memory
encoding of information that takes effort and attention
effortful processing
thinking about the meaning of the new information and its relation to knowledge already stored in your memory
elaborative rehearsal
input of information into the memory system
encoding
physical trace of memory
engram
type of declarative memory that contains information about events we have personally experienced, also known as autobiographical memory
episodic memory
memories we consciously try to remember and recall
explicit memory
recall of false autobiographical memories
false memory syndrome
exceptionally clear recollection of an important event
flashbulb memory
loss of information from long-term memory
forgetting
memories that are not part of our consciousness
implicit memory
information that is thought of more deeply becomes more meaningful and thus better committed to memory
levels of processing
continuous storage of information
long-term memory (LTM)
system or process that stores what we learn for future use
memory
active rehearsal to move information from short-term memory into long-term memory
memory consolidation
technique to help make sure information goes from short-term memory to long-term memory
memory-enhancing strategy
memory error in which you confuse the source of your information
misattribution
after exposure to incorrect information, a person may misremember the original event
misinformation effect paradigm
memory aids that help organize information for encoding
mnemonic device
failure of the memory system that involves the involuntary recall of unwanted memories, particularly unpleasant ones
persistence
old information hinders the recall of newly learned information
proactive interference
type go long-term memory for making skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth, how to drive a car, and how to swim
procedural memory
accessing information without cues
recall
identifying previously learning information after encountering it again, usually in response to a cue
recognition
process of bringing up old memories that might be distorted by new information
reconstruction
conscious repetition of information to be remembered
rehearsal
learning information that was previously learned
relearning
act of getting information out of long-term memory storage and back into conscious awareness
retrieval
information learned more recently hinders the recall of older information
retroactive interference
loss of memory for events that occurred prior to brain trauma
retrograde amnesia
tendency for an individual to have better memory for information that relates to oneself in comparison to material that has less personal relevance
self-reference effect
input of words and their meaning
semantic encoding
type of declarative memory about words, concepts, and language-based knowledge and facts
semantic memory
storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds and tastes
sensory memory
holds about seven bits of information before it is forgotten or stored, as well as information that has been retrieved and is being used
short-term memory (STM)
creation of a permanent record of information
storage
effects of misinformation from external sources that leads to the creation of false memories
suggestibility
memory error in which unused memories fade with the passage of time
transience
input of image
visual encoding
eating disorder characterized by an individual maintaining body weight that is well below average through starvation and/or excessive exercise
anorexia nervosa
type of surgery that modifies the gastrointestinal system to reduce the amount of food that can be eaten and/or limiting how much of the digested food can be absorbed
bariatric surgery
part of the brain with dense connections with a variety of sensory areas of the brain; it is critical for classical conditioning and attaching emotional value to memory
basolateral complex
type of eating disorder characterized by binge eating and associated distress
binge eating disorder
emotional and erotic attractions to both same-sexed individuals and opposite-sexed individuals
bisexual
emotional expression through body position or movement
body language
type of eating disorder characterized by binge eating followed by purging
bulimia nervosa
physiological arousal and emotional experience occur at the same time
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
part of the brain involved in attention and has connections with the hypothalamus and various brainstem areas to regulate the autonomic nervous and endocrine systems activity
central nucleus
our emotions are determined by our appraisal of the stimulus
cognitive-meditational theory
physiological arousal, psychological appraisal, and subjective experience
components of emotion
one of the culturally specific standards that govern the types and frequencies of emotions that are acceptable
cultural display rule
individuals view themselves as overweight even though they are not
distorted body image
deviations from homeostasis create physiological needs that result in psychological drive states that direct behavior to meet the need and ultimately bring the system back to homeostasis
drive theory
subjective state of being often described as feelings
emotion
motivation that arises from external factors or rewards
extrinsic motivation
facial expressions are capable of influencing our emotions
facial feedback hypothesis
diagnostic category in DSM-5 individuals who do not identify as the gender associated with their biological sex
gender dysphoria
individual’s sense of being male or female
gender identity
pattern of behavior in which we regularly engage
habit
spectrum of needs ranging from basic biological needs to social needs to self-actualization
hierarchy of needs
species-specific pattern of behavior that is unlearned
instinct
motivation based on internal feelings rather than external rewards
intrinsic motivation
emotions arise from physiological arousal
James-Lange theory of emotion
satiety hormone
leptin
amount of energy that is expended in a given period of time
metabolic rate
adult with a BMI over 40
morbid obesity
wants or needs that direct behavior toward some goal
motivation
adult with a BMI of 30 or higher
obese
peak phase of the sexual response cycle associated with rhythmic muscle contractions (and ejaculation)
orgasm
adult with a BMI between 25 - 29.9
overweight
phase of the sexual response cycle that falls between excitement and orgasm
plateau
lie detector test that measures physiological arousal of individuals as they answer a series of questions
polygraph
time immediately following an orgasm during which an individual is incapable of experiencing another
refractory period
phase of the sexual response cycle following orgasm during which the body returns to its unaroused state
resolution
fullness; satisfaction
satiation
emotions consist of two factors; physiological and cognitive
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory of emotion
individuals belief in his own capabilities or capacities to complete a task
self-efficacy
assertion that each individual has an ideal body weight, or set point, that is resistant to change
set point theory
divided into 4 phases including excitement, plateau, orgasm and resolution
sexual response cycle
use of hormones to make one’s body look more like the opposite sex
transgender hormone therapy
simple tasks are performed best when arousal levels are relatively high, while complex tasks are best performed when arousal is lower
York’s-Dodson law
