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Developmental Biology > Test 2 > Flashcards

Test 2 Flashcards

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1
Q

Stem cell

A

A cell that retains the ability to divide and re-create itself while also having the ability to generate more progeny capable of specializing into a more differentiated cell type

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2
Q

What does a stem cell divide into

A

Another stem cell and progeny that can differentiate

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3
Q

Single cell asymmetry

A

A stem cell and a committed cell is produced at each division

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4
Q

Population asymmetry

A

Some cells in a population are more prone to produce a differentiated cell

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5
Q

Is population asymmetry symmetrical or not

A

Symmetrical

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6
Q

Population asymmetry example

A

One stem cell divides into two stem cells OR two committed cells

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7
Q

Adult stem cell lineage

A

A cell which goes through many rounds of cell division but eventually will turn into a differentiated cell

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8
Q

Renewal

A

Continuous division of the stem cell

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9
Q

Totipotent

A

A stem cell capable of producing all the cell types of a lineage

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10
Q

Pluripotent

A

Capable of producing all the cells of the embryo. Cannot produce any extra embryonic membranes

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11
Q

Multipotent

A

Function to generate cell types with restricted specificity for the tissues in which they reside. (Stuck in position. Divides to build up the tissue theyre in)

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12
Q

Progenitor

A

Can only divide a few times before it differentiates. Works to amplify the number of cells. Will differentiate soon

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13
Q

Precursor

A

Any ancestoral cell type to the differentiated cell. Lineage may not be known

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14
Q

How are stem cells regulated between these different states in a coordinated way to meet patterning and morphogenic need of the embryo and mature tissue

A

Regulation is highly influenced by the microenvironment that surrounds a stem cell and is known as the stem cell niche

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15
Q

Where is the stem cell niche found

A

All tissues possess a unique stem cell niche. Extracellular and intracellular changes regulate stem cell behavior

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16
Q

Extracellular mechanisms

A
  1. Physical mechanisms

2. Chemical mechanisms

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17
Q

Physical mechanisms

A

Structural adhesion factors within the ECM that support architecture of the niche. Differences in cell to cell and cell to matrix adhesions as well as cell density within the niche can alter the mechanical forces that influence cell behavior

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18
Q

Chemical regulation

A

Secreted proteins from surrounding cells influence stem cell states and progenitor differentiation through endocrine, paracrine and juxtacrine mechanisms. If stem cells are too far from niche, the factors cant reach them and differentiation commences

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19
Q

Interstitial fluid

A

Fluid not in the bloodstream

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20
Q

Intracellular mechanisms

A
  1. Regulation by cytoplasmic determinants
  2. Transcriptional regulation
  3. Epigenetic regulation
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21
Q

Regulation of cytoplasmic determinants

A

Partitioning which occurs at cytokenisis. As a stem cell divides, the factors determining cell fate are either partitioned to one daughter cell (asymmetric) or shared evenly between daughter cells (symmetric)

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22
Q

Transcriptional regulation

A

Occurs through a network of transcription factors that keep a stem cell in its proliferative state , as well as promoting maturation of daughter cells towards a particular fate

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23
Q

Epigenetic regulation

A

Occurs at the level of chromatin. Different patterns of chromatin accessibility influence gene expression related to stem cell behavior

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24
Q

Blastocoel

A

Space in the middle filled with fluid to shift morula cells to one spot (ICM)

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25
Q

Inner cell mass (ICM) creates the _____

A

Epiblast or embryo proper

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26
Q

Trophoectoderm cells

A

Create the extraembryonic membrane

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27
Q

What happens if we remove cells from the ICM

A

We produce embryonic stem cells which retain pluripotency and can generate any cell in the body

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28
Q

Blastocyst

A

Special name for a mammalian blastula

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29
Q

How does the blastocyst form

A

After fertilization, cleavage creates the morula. Division continues until it hollows out to become the fluid filled blastocoel. Cells are pushed to one side to become the ICM which retains pluripotency for a while. Trophoblast will become extra embryonic structures

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30
Q

Symmetrical division parallel to apicobasal axis

A

Trophectoderm expands

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31
Q

Asymmetrical division perpendicular to apicobasal axis

A

ICM cell created - will not have the same proteins as the original cell and becomes a different cell type

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32
Q

Apicobasal axis

A

Outer side of the embryo to inner side

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33
Q

When does the asymmetrical localization along the apicobasal axis occur

A

At the morula stage

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34
Q

What specific factors are localized

A
  1. ICM

2. Tropoectoderm

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35
Q

ICM localization

A

Results in the recruitment of E-cadherin to the basolateral membrane where outer cells contact underlying ICM cells

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36
Q

Trophoectoderm localization

A

PAR and aPKC families are localized to the outside cells, these factors are called partitioning proteins

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37
Q

Is E-cadherin important in influencing these cell lineages

A

Yes. E- Cadherin activates Hippo patheay but only in the ICM

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38
Q

Result of E-cadherin influencing cell lineages

A
  1. Hippo activated in ICM and the maintenace of pluripotent ICM development through Oct4
  2. PAR and aPKC inhibit Hippo leading to yap-taz-tead transcription complex which causes an upregulation of cdx2 and the trophoectoderm fate
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39
Q

Hippo on

A

Oct 4 turned on –> can act as stem cell

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40
Q

Hippo off

A

Cdx2 turned on –> stops cell from having stem cell ability

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41
Q

What does the hippo pathway prevent

A

Prevents cdx2 from being transcribed

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42
Q

What must adult stem cells do

A
  1. Maintain a long term ability to divide
  2. Be able to produce some differentiated daughter cells
  3. Be housed in and controlled by its own stem cell niche which regulates stem cell renewal, survival, and differentiation
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43
Q

Where are neural stem cells found

A
  1. Subgranular zone of the hippocampus (SGZ)

2. The ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ)of the lateral ventricles

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44
Q

Germ line

A

The gametes are the product of the germ line that is separate from the somatic cell lineages

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45
Q

Meiosis

A

Chromosomal content is halved so the union of two gametes restores the full chromosomal complement of the new organism

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46
Q

How many cells does meiosis produce

A

4 haploid unidentical cells

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47
Q

Primary sex determination

A

Determination of the gonads

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48
Q

Secondary sex determination

A

Determination of the male and female phenotype by the hormones produced by the gonads

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49
Q

Bipotential gonad

A

Common precursor that male and female gonads diverge from

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50
Q

Gonads

A

Paired regions of the mesoderm that are adjacent to the kidneys

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51
Q

Male gonadal type

A

Testes

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52
Q

Female gonadal type

A

Ovary

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53
Q

Male germ cell location

A

Inside testes cords (medulla of testes)

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54
Q

Female germ cell location

A

Inside follicles of ovarian cortex

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55
Q

Remaining duct male

A

Wolffian

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56
Q

Remaining duct female

A

Mullerian

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57
Q

Male duct differentiation

A

Vas deferens, epididymis, seminal vesicle

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58
Q

Female duct differentiation

A

Oviduct, uterus, cervix, upper portion of the vagina

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59
Q

Male urogenital sinus

A

Prostate

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60
Q

Female urogenital sinus

A

Skenes glands

61
Q

Male labioscrotal folds

A

Scrotum

62
Q

Female labioscrotal folds

A

Labia majora

63
Q

Male genital tubercle

A

Penis

64
Q

Female genital tubercle

A

Clitoris

65
Q

Female karyotype

A

XX

66
Q

Male karyotype

A

XY

67
Q

What is it in the Y chromosome that makes a male a male

A

Testis-determining factor (SRY gene) which organizes the bipotential gonad into testes

68
Q

SRY active at the proper time

A

Male gonads, inhibits ovary formation

69
Q

SRY gene is not present or fails to act at the appropriate time

A

Ovary forming genes will function. Female gonads

70
Q

When do gonadal rudiments appear

A

Week 4 and remain sexually indifferent until week 7

71
Q

6 weeks wolffian duct

A

Indifferent gonad shows expanded epithelium. Mesoderm continues to proliferate

72
Q

8 week testes development

A

Developing sertoli cells surround incoming germ cells and organize themselves into testes cord near kidney. Anti mullerian hormone secreted. Seminferous tublues form

73
Q

16 weeks male

A

Wolffian duct differentiates to become epididymus and vas deferns. Efferent ducts are the remodeled tubules of the developing kidney

74
Q

8 weeks ovarian development

A

Each germ cell gets enveloped by a cluster of sex cord epithelial cells. Germ cells become eggs and surrounding cortical epithelial cells will differentiate into granulosa cells

75
Q

20 weeks female

A

Remaining mesanchyme cells differentiate into thecal cells. Thecal and granulosa cells form follicles that envelope germ cells and secrete steroid hormones. Ovary does not connect to the wolffian duct

76
Q

Cells that surround oocyte

A

Granulosa closest

Theca on outer layer

77
Q

Genes expressed in bipotential gonad

A

Wt1, Lhx9, GATA4, Sf1

78
Q

Where is Wnt4 expressed

A

In the bipotential gonad and ovaries, not the testes

79
Q

____ acts with Wnt4 to produce _____

A

Rspo1, B-catenin

80
Q

What is beta catenin important for

A

Activating further ovarian development and blocking synthesis of Sox9 (a testes determining factor)

81
Q

What transcription factors for development does B-catenin activate

A

FoxI2 and follistatin

82
Q

What is follistatin responsible for

A

Organizing epithelium in granulosa cells

83
Q

Evidence that the SRY gene is located on the Y and determines sex

A

Inserting SRY into genome of a normal XX zygote will make the XX mouse form testes

84
Q

What gene goes the SRY gene activate to induce testes formation

A

Sox9

85
Q

Meiosis vs mitosis

A
  1. Meiosis is two cell divisions without an intervening period of DNA replication
  2. Homologous chromosomes pair together and recombine genetic material
86
Q

How do homologous chromosomes find eachother

A

Based on size and sequence

87
Q

Leptotene

A

Search

88
Q

Zygotene

A

Association of homologous chromosomes -synapse

89
Q

Pachytene

A

Homologous chromosomes completely aligned

90
Q

Diplotene

A

Recombination

91
Q

Spermatogenesis

A

The development pathway from germ cell to mature sperm cell

92
Q

Spermatogonia

A

Sperm stem cell

93
Q

Spermiogenesis

A

Physical maturation of a sperm cell

94
Q

Step 1 spermatogenesis

A

Spermatogonia divide -proliferative phase

95
Q

Step 2 spermatogenesis

A

Meiotic phase - meiosis occurs (completes before spermiogenesis)

96
Q

Step 3 spermatogenesis

A

Spermiogenesis - sperm is shaped and matured

97
Q

Spermatogonia division

A

One stem cell, one cell that will go into meiosis and spermatogenesis

98
Q

Layers of cells in the seminiferous tubule

A
  • Stem cells outside
  • 1 st meiotic division
  • 2nd meitoic division
  • Meiosis complete
  • Mature sperm in center
99
Q

Low levels of GDNF favor_____

A

Differentiation of spermatogonium

100
Q

Oogonia

A

Stem cell that divides

101
Q

Primary oocyte

A

Undergoes one round of meiosis and is stuck in the diplotein stage until puberty

102
Q

Secondary oocyte

A

Released by the ovary in the stage of metaphase II. Meiosis is completed upon fertilization

103
Q

Meiosis in oocyte

A

oogonia –> primary oocyte (meiosis round 1, stops in diplotein phase) –> secondary oocyte (stops at metaphase 2 until fertilization) –> meiosis is complete

104
Q

What does an oogonia split into

A

Primary oocyte and stem cell to replace itself

105
Q

Why do older women have a higher chance of giving birth to a fetus with an extra chromosome

A

Break down of cohesion proteins needed during meiosis which causes aneuploidy

106
Q

How long is meiosis

A

16 hours to assemble meiosis spindle, 4 hours in mice

107
Q

Why are more downs syndrome babies born to younger women if older women have a higher chance of having them

A

Younger women have more babies in general

108
Q

Four major events of fertilization

A
  1. Contact and recognition between sperm and egg
  2. Regulation of sperm entry into the egg
  3. Fusion of genetic material of the sperm and egg
  4. Activation of egg metabolism to start development
109
Q

What is the sperm tail made of

A

Centrioles, made of microtubules

110
Q

What powers the tail of the sperm

A

Mitochondria

111
Q

What does the golgi form in the sperm

A

Acrosomal vesicle

112
Q

What happens to the remaining cytoplasm in the sperm

A

It is expelled to get rid of extra weight

113
Q

What enters the egg from the sperm during fertilization

A

The nucelus and centriole

114
Q

Structure of sea urchin egg

A

Plasma membrane (inner), Vitelline envelope (middle), Jelly coat (outer)

115
Q

How is polyspermy prevented in the sea urchin egg

A

The vitelline envelope condenses to prevent more than one sperm from fertilizing the egg

116
Q

Germinal vesicle

A

Name given to the large diploid nucelus of the primary oocyte

117
Q

When does the sperm enter the egg in most mammals

A

Second metaphase

118
Q

When does the sperm enter the egg in sea urchins

A

Meiosis complete

119
Q

Structure of mammalian eggs

A

Plasma membrane (inner), zona pelicuida (middle), cumulus (outer)

120
Q

What is the vitilline analogous to in the mammal

A

Zona pelucida

121
Q

What is the jelly layer analogous to in the mammal

A

Cumulus

122
Q

Steps of fertilization in sea urchin

A
  1. Sperm contacts jelly layer
  2. Acrosome reaction
  3. Digestion of jelly layer
  4. Binding to vitelling envelope
  5. Fusion of acrosomal process membrane and egg membrane
123
Q

Steps of fertilization in mammals

A
  1. Sperm activated by female reproductive tract
  2. Sperm binds to zona pelucida
  3. Acrosome reaction
  4. Sperm lyses hole in zona
  5. Sperm and egg membrane fuse
124
Q

How does sperm travel through the female

A

Chemotaxis, sperm goes towards higher concentration of chemotaxis faster

125
Q

Chemotaxis pathway in sea urchin

A

Resact from egg binds to RGC –> GTP –> cGMP–> Ca2+ –> sperm swim towards egg

126
Q

Protein for sperm egg recognition

A

Bindin

127
Q

Why cant different species have offspring

A

Bindin is species specific

128
Q

How do sperm know where to bind to the egg

A

Sperm only bind where bindin receptors are on egg

129
Q

Dispermic sea urchin process

A
  1. Fusion of three haploid nuclei (18 chromosomes each)
  2. 54 chromosomes randomly assort on the four spindles
  3. Duplicated chromosomes pulled to four poles during anaphase I
  4. Four cells contain different numbers and types of chromosomes
  5. Early death of embryo
130
Q

Potential of egg membrane before sperm

A

-70 mV

131
Q

Slow block to polyspermy

A
  1. Sperm surround egg 10 seconds after addition
  2. 25 and 35 seconds after, fertilization envelope is formed around the egg starting at point of sperm entry
  3. Fertilization envelope is complete and excess sperm are removed
132
Q

Fast block to polyspermy

A

-70 mV to +120 mV

133
Q

Formation of sea urchin fertilization envelope

A

Corticle granules fuse with plasma membrane, H20 breaks connection

134
Q

Where are calcium ions released from

A

The ER

135
Q

Where is the bindin protein on the sperm

A

In the acrosomal process

136
Q

Mucopolysaccharides

A

Produce the osmotic gradient for the fertilization envelope

137
Q

Peroxidase enzyme

A

Crosslinking tyrosine residues. Hardens envelope

138
Q

Hyalin

A

Coating around the egg

139
Q

What surrounds the cortical granules in sea urchin eggs

A

Endoplasmic reticulum

140
Q

Formation of fertilization envelope pathway (mechanism of egg activation)

A

PIP2 –> IP3 –> Ca released from ER –> cortical granule exocytosis (fertilization envelope develops)

141
Q

What else does PIP2 activate

A

DAG

142
Q

G protein involvement in Ca entry into sea urchin eggs

A

Sperm contact and fusion –> G protein activation –> Src activation –> PLCy activation –> PIP2 –> IP3/DAG –> Ca release –> cortical granule exocytosis (slow block) OR inactivation of MAP kinase (reinitiation of cell cycle)

143
Q

Sperm capacitation

A

Removal of cholesterol by albumin –> influx of ca and bicarbonate –> promote AC activity –> make cAMP from AMP –> protein kinase A (inhibit PTP) –> PTK –> phosphorylate capacitation proteins

144
Q

What must a sperm go through in order to fertilize

A

Capacitation

145
Q

Why doesn’t the first sperm to reach the egg fertilize it

A

It probably did not go through capacitation. Capacitation is a long process

146
Q

Where does the acrosomal reaction occur in mammals

A

Cumulus

147
Q

What is the zona pellucida made of

A

Four glycoproteins: ZP1, ZP2, ZP3, ZP4

148
Q

Which glycoprotein blocks polyspermy in mammals

A

ZP2

149
Q

How does the nuclei of the egg and sperm migrate to eachother

A

Migrate following microtubules

Developmental Biology (5 decks)

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