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Developmental Biology > Test 1 > Flashcards

Test 1 Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Stages of development

A
  1. Fertilization
  2. Cleavage
  3. Gastrulaton
  4. Organogenesis
  5. Larval stages
  6. Maturity
  7. Gametogenesis
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2
Q

Morula

A

Solid ball of cells

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3
Q

Blastula

A

Hollow ball of cells

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4
Q

Blastomere

A

1 cell within the blastula

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5
Q

Fertilization

A

Union of male and female gametes to form the diploid zygote

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6
Q

Cleavage

A

Synchronized mitotic cell divisions of a fertilized egg that results in formation of blastomeres and changes the single celled zygote into a multicellular embryo

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7
Q

What happens to the embryo size during cleavage

A

Embryo size stays the same, cell size gets smaller and smaller

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8
Q

Gastrulation

A

Big cell movements. Transformation of the blastula to the gastrula and development of germ layers

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9
Q

Axis development

A

Developing a left/right, anterior/posterior, dorsal ventral, and proximal distal axis

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10
Q

What governs the different types of cleavage

A

The amount of yolk determines the cleavage patterns

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11
Q

Where does division occur if there is a lot of yolk

A

Division only at the top

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12
Q

Invagination

A

Infolding of a sheet (epithelium) of cells, much like the indention of a soft rubber ball when its poked

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13
Q

Involution

A

Inward movement of an expanding outer layer so that it spreads over the internal surface of the remaining external cells

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14
Q

Ingression

A

Migration of individual cells from the surface into the embryos interior (move away from neighbors, loss of cadhesion)

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15
Q

Delamination

A

Splitting one cellular sheet into two or more parallel sheets

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16
Q

Epiboly

A

Movement of the epithelial sheets spreading as a unit to enclose deeper layers of the embryo

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17
Q

Germ layers

A

Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm

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18
Q

Ectoderm

A

Skin and CNS

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19
Q

Mesoderm

A

Bones and muscle

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20
Q

Endoderm

A

Organs (respiratory and digestive tract)

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21
Q

Methods of tracking cells

A
  1. Fate maps
  2. Direct observations of living embryos
  3. Dye markings
  4. Genetic labeling
  5. Transgenic DNA chimeras
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22
Q

Epithelial cells

A

Have tight connections to neighboring cells (do not move–> only move in epiboly but do not leave neighbors)

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23
Q

Mesenchymal cells

A

Are loose or unconnected to one another and can move

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24
Q

Fate maps and methods

A

Following a cell through development using dyes to see what each cell would turn into

  1. Dye marking
  2. Flourescent dye
  3. Chimera
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25
Q

Dye marking

A

Method of creating a fate map. Most cells are colorless, dyes stain cells but dont kill them

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26
Q

Chimera

A

Tissue from the embryo of one animal is removed and replaced by another using a graft (tissue a different color or labelled)

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27
Q

Transgenic DNA chimeras

A

Donor embryo is infected with a virus with a gene to express GFP. Infected cells glow green in UV light. Glowing cells transplanted into a host embryo and track movement

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28
Q

Why is evolutionary embryology important

A

Embryos pass through the same developmental stages as their ancestors

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29
Q

Homologous

A

Similaity based on a common ancestor

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30
Q

Analgous

A

Perform similar function but do not have a common ancestor

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31
Q

Causes of abnormalities

A

Generic mutation
Environmental cause
Multifctorial

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32
Q

Types of genetic mutations

A
  1. Gene mutations
  2. Chromosomal aneupolidy
  3. Translocations
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33
Q

Environmental causes of mutations

A
  1. Teratogen - chemicals, viruses, radiation, hyperthermia
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34
Q

Multifactoral causes

A

Combination, we are not sure

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35
Q

Differentiation

A

Development of cellular specialization

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36
Q

What step comes before differentitation

A

Commitment

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37
Q

Parts of comitment

A
  1. Specification

2. Determination

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38
Q

Specification

A

Capable of differentiating autonomously when placed in a neutral environment, not in non neutral environment (reversible)

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39
Q

Determination

A

Capable of differentiatin autonomously even when placed into another embryonic region (irreversible)

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40
Q

Where do the factors come from that create specification

A
  1. Cell has components within it that causes it to become that cell type
  2. Neighboring cells influence cells to be specified
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41
Q

Autonomous specification

A

Removed blastomere will produce the same cells it would if it were still part of the embryo. The embryo will lack the cells taken

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42
Q

Morphogenic determinants

A

Molecules of transcription factors that will influence gene expression that directs a cell into a particular path of development. The cell knows very early what it will become

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43
Q

Where does the cell get morphogenic determinants

A

From mother

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44
Q

Conditional specifiation

A

Each cell origially has ability to make many different cell types. Interactions with other cells restricts the fate of one or both participants. Fate of cell depends upon the conditions in which the cell finds itself
- Cells retain identity but grow according to the cells around them (flag)

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45
Q

What are cell comittment and differentiation programmed by

A

morphogen gradients

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46
Q

Differential gene expression

A

Process by which cells become different from one another based upon the unique combination of genes that are active or expressed

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47
Q

What does expression of different genes cause the production of

A

Proteins that lead to the differentiation of different cell types

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48
Q

Three postulates of differential gene expression

A
  1. Every somatic cell nucleus of an organism contains the complete genome established in the fertilized egg (DNA of all differentiated cells is identical)
  2. Unused genes in differentiated cells are neither destroyed nor mutated. They retain potential for being expressed
  3. Only a small percentage of the genome is expressed in each cell and a portion of the RNA synthesized in each cell is specific for that cell type
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49
Q

Regulaiton of gene expression

A
  1. Differential gene expression: regulates which nuclear genes are transcipred into nuclear RNA
  2. Selective nuclear RNA processing: regulates which of the transcribed RNAs are able to enter the cytoplasm and become mRNA
  3. Selective messanger RNA translation: regulated which of the mRNAs in the cytoplasm are changed into proteins
  4. Differential protein modification: regulates which proteins are allowed to remain or function in the cell
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50
Q

The genome across all cells is the same but ______ is not

A

the expression of the same mRNA across all cells

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51
Q

Explanation behind cloning

A

If each cells nucelus is identical to the zygote nucleus then each cells nucelus should be capable of developing an entire organism

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52
Q

Chromatin

A

DNA and protein complex found in eukaryotic genes (DNA and histones condensed –> no access to genes)

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53
Q

DNA histone complex

A

Called nucleosome

DNA wound around histones

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54
Q

Histones

A

Protein component made up of an octamer of histone proteins

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55
Q

Nucleosome

A

The histone plus about 147 bp of DNA that wraps around it in two loops with many contact points

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56
Q

Heterochromin

A

Tightly packed DNA around histones

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57
Q

Euchromatin

A

Loosely packed DNA around histones

58
Q

What is gene expression dependent upon

A

How tightly packed a given region of chromatin may be (regulating if genes are accesible for transcription)

59
Q

What two groups modify the H3 and H4 tails

A
  • Methyl (CH3)

- Acetyl (COCH3)

60
Q

Histone acetylation

A

Loosens histones and promotes transcription

61
Q

What causes histone acetylation

A

Histone Acetyltransferases

62
Q

Histone methylation

A

Tightens histones and promotes transcriptional repression

63
Q

What causes histone methylation

A

Histone methyltransferases

64
Q

What could methylation also do to the histone

A

It can activate transcription depending on the amino acid being methylated and the presence of acetyl or methyl groups in the vicinity

65
Q

Exons

A

Regions of the DNA that code for parts of the protein

66
Q

Introns

A

Regions of the DNA that have nothing to do with the protein sequence

67
Q

Parts of a gene `

A
  1. Exon
  2. Intron
  3. Promotor
  4. Transcription initiation site
  5. 5’ untranslated region
  6. Translation initiation site
  7. Translation termination codon
  8. 3’ untranslated region (3’ UTR)
  9. Transcription termination sequnece
68
Q

Promotor region

A

Where RNA polymerase II binds to intiate transcription. Same have the sequence TATA (tata box) which binds to TBP and helps anchor RNA polymerase II to the promotor . Where proteins are prepared for transcription to occur

69
Q

Where is the promotor region located

A

In front of the gene

70
Q

Transcription initiation site

A

The DNA sequence that will code for the addition of the 5’ cap after the RNA is transcribed

71
Q

What does the cap sequence begin

A

It begins the first exon

72
Q

5’ untranslated region

A

Determines the rate at which translation is initiated

73
Q

Translation initiation site

A

ATG (AUG in RNA). This codon is found after the translation initiation site (distance varies). ATG translation start sequence is the same in every gene

74
Q

Translation termination codon

A

TAA (UAA in mRNA). When ribosome enters this codon, the ribosome dissociates and protein is released. Can be TAG or TGA in other genes

75
Q

3’ untranslated region

A

Transcribed but not translated into protein. Has the sequence for polyadenylation (addition of tail)

76
Q

Roles of polyA tail `

A
  1. confers stability on mRNA
  2. Allows mRNA to exit nucleus
  3. Permits the mRNA to be translated into protein
77
Q

Transcription termination sequence

A

Transcription continues beyond the AATAAA site for about 1000 nucleotides before being terminated (end portion of mRNA)

78
Q

Cis regulatory elements

A

The on, off and dimmer switches of a gene

79
Q

Cis

A

Located on the same chromosome

80
Q

Cis regulatory elements of DNA

A

Promotors
Enhancers - like promotors
Silencers - prevent transcription

81
Q

Cis regulatory elements of proteins

A

Transcription factors

82
Q

Promotor

A

Sites where RNA polymerase binds to initiate transcription. Promotors usually have a 1000 bp site of repeating CG

83
Q

CpG islands

A

Repeating CG

84
Q

Enhancers

A

Control the rate and efficiency of transcription from a specific promotor, recruit and stabilize RNA polymerase

85
Q

Silencers

A

Prevent promotor use and inhibit gene transcription

86
Q

Basal transcription factors

A

Bind to CpG islands. They also recruit RNA polymerase and orient it

87
Q

What will other transcription factors do

A

Bind to enhancers activating genes

88
Q

What is the job of transcription factors

A
  1. Recruit enzymes to break up the nucleosomes in the area (histone acetyl transferases to make it accesible for RNA polymerase)
  2. Loop the chromatin so that the enhancer with all its tanscription factors will be brought closer to the promotor (creates a bridge)
89
Q

Differential RNA processing

A

Splicing of the mRNA precursors into messages that specify different proteins by using different combinations of potential exons

90
Q

Splicing isoforms

A

Different proteins encoded by the same gene

91
Q

Alternative nRNA splicing

A

Producing a wide variety of proteins from the same gene, and most vertebrate make nRNAs that are alternatively spliced

92
Q

How does the cell know where an exon ends and intron begins

A

Consensus sequences

93
Q

Consensus sequences

A

found at the 5’ and 3’ end of an intron. These sequences are splice sites of an intron

94
Q

What splices nRNA at consensus sequences

A

Spliceosomes

95
Q

Spliceosomes

A

Small nRNA that bind to splice sites

96
Q

Splicing factors

A

Made up of proteins that bind to the splice sites or to areas adjacent to them

97
Q

How does alternative splicing occur

A

Specific splicing factors are produced. Each cell type produces a different set so an exon can be included in one and omitted in another

98
Q

Control of gene expression at the level of translation

A
  1. Differential mRNA longevity
  2. Stored oocyte mRNAs selective inhibition of mRNA translation
  3. Ribosomal activation of mRNA translation
  4. microRNAs: specific regulation of mRNAs translation and transcription
99
Q

Differential mRNA longevity

A
  • not all mRNA lasts for the same amount of time after transcription
  • mRNA is easily destroyed in the cell
  • the longer mRNA lasts, the more protein can be translated from it
100
Q

Stored oocyte mRNAs selective inhibition of mRNA transation

A

Oocyte makes and stores mRNA prior to meiosis to be used after fertilization

101
Q

What are stored mRNAs called

A

Maternal contributions

102
Q

Why are maternal contributions benefitial

A

The zygote does not need to have any trascription or traslation and can go right into cleavage after fertilization using up the mRNA and proteins deposited by its mother

103
Q

What will not occur is maternal contributions are used up

A

Gastrulation

104
Q

What keeps maternal contributions in a dormant state

A

There has to be an inhibitor. Maskin (protein) forms repressive loop structures by bringing 5’ and 3’ ends together in oocytes

105
Q

What removes the inhibition sequence

A

Progesterone

106
Q

What stimulates progesterone release and what does it lead to

A

Ovulation Stimulates progesterone release which triggers translation of the mRNA

107
Q

Morphogenesis

A

Construction of different shapes and organs. Cells must be differentiated

108
Q

What causes changes

A

Protein-protein interactions

109
Q

What mediated cell communication and where do they come from

A

Informational molecules secreted or positioned in the cells membrane

110
Q

Juxtacrine signaling

A

Contact dependent. A cell is communicating to a neighboring cell (must touch)

111
Q

Paracrine signaling

A

Neighboring cells. A cell is communicating to cells surrounding it and further away

112
Q

Ligand

A

A protein secerted from a cell designed to communicate with another cell

113
Q

Receptor

A

Proteins within a membrane designed to bind to signaling proteins or a ligand

114
Q

Homophilic binding

A

A receptor in the membrane of one cell that binds to the same type of receptor in another cell

115
Q

Heterophilic binding

A

Occurs between two different receptor types

116
Q

What does binding of a receptor to a ligand do

A
  1. Changes the extracellular receptor shape (dimerize)
  2. Changes the intracellular receptor shape (phosphorylate)
  3. Causes a cascade of events within the cell
117
Q

Differential cell affinity

A

Experient: embryos mixed but went back to normal

- cells must have already recieved signal to know where theyre supposed to be

118
Q

Term for cells knowing where to go back to when mixed

A

Selective affinity

119
Q

How do cells sort themselves

A
  • Cells with greater cohesion migrate centrally compared to those with less surface tension (more contact possible = move inward)
120
Q

“Glue” on the cell surface that connects them to other cells

A

Cadherin

121
Q

Cadherins

A

Calcium dependent adhesion molecules. Transmembrane proteins that interact with cadherins on other cells

122
Q

What anchors the cadherins inside the cell

A

Catenins

123
Q

Where is cadherin located

A

Transmembrane

124
Q

How does one cell leave another cell

A

Change its plasma membrane to no longer have cadherin on it. Will detach from other cell

125
Q

Quantity and cohesion

A

The more cadhesion, the more surface tension

Linear relationship

126
Q

What can cadhesion expression affect

A

The timing of developmental events

127
Q

Signal transduction cascades

A
  • Fibroblast growth factors and RTK
  • Hedgehog
  • Wnt
  • TGF-B superfamily
128
Q

Basic blueprint of a signal transduction

A
  1. A signal
  2. A receptor for that signal
  3. Mechanism to translate or transport the signal
  4. Mechanism to translate the signal to a stimulation or repression of gene expression
129
Q

What is it called when receptors come together after ligand binding

A

Dimerized

130
Q

What causes the cascade inside the cell in RTK

A

phosphorylation

131
Q

What type of molecules phosphorylates

A

Kinase

132
Q

End goal of RTK

A

Stimulation or repression of gene expression

133
Q

What activates a protein

A

Phosphorylation

134
Q

RTK pathway

A
  1. Ligand
  2. RTK
  3. GEF
  4. RAS
  5. RAF
  6. MEK
  7. ERK
  8. Transcription factor
  9. Transcription
135
Q

What dephosphorylates RAS to stop transcription

A

GAP

136
Q

What happens if RAS is stuck turned on

A

Uncontrolled growth (cancer)

137
Q

No Wnt pathway

A

Beta catenin is destroyed

138
Q

Wnt bound pathway

A

B catenin binds in the nucelus and turns on gene transcription

139
Q

TGF-B superfamily pathway

A
  1. TGF-B ligand
  2. Receptor II
  3. Receptor I
  4. Smad activation
  5. Smad dimerization
  6. New transcription
140
Q

Acetylation of tails along with addition of 3 methyl groups causes

A

Actively transcribed chromatin

141
Q

Lack of acetylation with methylation of lysine in 9th position of H3 is associated with

A

Highly repressed chromatin

Developmental Biology (5 decks)

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