Test #2 Flashcards
the formation of simple associations between various stimuli and responses
associative learning
higher-level learning involving thinking, knowing, understanding, and anticipation
cognitive learning
anything that makes a behavior continue
reinforcer
events that precede a response
antecedents
effects that follow a response
consequences
a form of learning in which reflex responses are associated with new stimuli (before)
classical conditioning
learning based on the consequences of responding (after)
operant conditioning
learning that occurs without obvious reinforcement and that remains unexpressed until reinforcement is provided
latent learning
learning that takes place mechanically, though repetition and memorization, or by learning rules
rote learning
learning based on insight and understanding
discovery learning
information returned to a person about the effects a response has had; a.k.a. knowledge of results
feedback
learning achieved by watching and imitating the actions of another or noting the consequences of those actions
observational learning (modeling)
the period in conditioning during which a response is reinforced
acquisition
the weakening of a conditioned response though removal of reinforcement
extinction
the reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction
spontaneous recovery
a fear that persists even when no realistic danger exists
phobia
reducing fear or anxiety by repeatedly exposing a person to emotional stimuli while the person is deeply relaxed
systematic desensitization
the device that allowed careful study of operant conditioning
Skinner Box
a series of actions that eventually lead to reinforcement
response chain
a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is not actually unnecessary
superstitious behavior
gradually molding responses to a final desired pattern
shaping
occurs when a response is followed by a reward or other positive event
positive reinforcement
occurs when a response is followed by an end to discomfort or by the removal of an unpleasant event
negative reinforcement
any event that follows a response and decreases its likelihood of occurring again; the process of suppressing a response
positive punishment
removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made
negative punishment (response cost)
the tendency to respond to stimuli similar to those that preceded operant reinforcement
operant stimulus generalization
the tendency to make an operant response when stimuli previously associated with reward are present and to withhold the response when stimuli associated with nonreward are present
operant stimulis discrimination
nonlearned reinforcers; usually those that satisfy physiological needs
primary reinforcers
a learned reinforcer; often one that gains reinforcing properties by association with a primary reinforcer
secondary reinforcer
a tangible secondary reinforcer such as money, gold stars, poker chips, and the like
token reinforcer
reinforcement based on receiving attention, approval, or affection from another person
social reinforcer
a pattern in which only a portion of all responses are reinforced
partial reinforcement
a pattern in which a reinforcer follows every correct response
continuous reinforcement
any event that follows a response and decreases its likelihood of occurring again; the process of suppressing a response
punishment
the active mental system for receiving, encoding, storing, organizing, altering, and retrieving information
memory
converting information into a form in which it will be retained in memory
encoding
holding information in memory for later use
storage
recovering information from storage in memory
retrieval
the first, normally unconscious, stage of memory, which holds an exact record of incoming information for a few seconds or less
sensory memory
a mental image or visual representation
iconic memory
a brief continuation of sensory activity in the auditory system after a sound is heard
echoic memory
the memory system used to hold small amounts of information in our conscious awareness for about a dozen seconds
short-term memory
another name for short-term memory, especially as it is used for thinking and problem solving
working memory
a measure of attention and short-term memory
digit-span test
information bits grouped into larger units
information chunks
a memory that can seem accurate but is not
false memory
a model of memory that views it as an organized system of linked information
network model
process by which memories are reconstructed or expanded by starting with one memory, and then following chains of association to other, related memories
redintegration
long-term memories of conditioned responses and learned skills
procedural memory
that part of long-term memory containing specific factual information
declarative memory
a subpart of declarative memory that records impersonal knowledge about the world
semantic memory
a subpart of declarative memory that records personal experiences that are linked with specific times and places
episodic memory
the tendency to make the most errors in remembering the middle items of an ordered list
serial position effect
the feeling that a memory is available but not quite retrievable
tip-of-the-tongue state
false items included with an item to be recognized
distractors
learning again something that was previously learned. used to measure memory of prior learning
relearning
the amount of time saved when relearning information
savings score
a memory that a person is aware of having; a memory that is consciously retrieved
explicit memory
a memory that a person does not know exists; a memory that is retrieved unconsciously
implicit memory
facilitating the retrieval of an implicit memory by using cues to activate hidden memories
priming
a graph that shows the amount of information remembered after varying lengths of time
Ebbinghaus’s curve of forgetting
failure to store sufficient information to form a useful memory
encoding failure
physical changes in nerve cells or brain activity that take place when memories are stored
memory traces
the fading or weakening of memories assumed to occur when memory traces become weaker
memory decay
theory that memory traces weaken when memories are not periodically used or retrieved
disuse
stimuli associated with a memory.
retrieval cues
retrieval may fail if retrieval cues are missing when the time comes to retrieve information
cue-dependent forgetting
memory influenced by one’s physical state at the time of learning and at the time of retrieval. improved memory occurs when the physical states match
state-dependent learning (example: chewing gum while studying)
the tendency for new memories to impair retrieval of older memories, and the reverse
interference
the tendency for new memories to interfere with the retrieval of old memories
retroactive interference
the tendency for old memories to interfere with the retrieval of newer memories
proactive interference
mastery of one task aids learning or performing another
positive transfer
mastery of one task conflicts with learning or performing another
negative transfer
UNCONSCIOUSLY pushing unwanted memories out of awareness
repression
CONSCIOUSLY putting something out of mind
suppression
loss of memory for events that preceded a head injury or other amnesia-causing event
retrograde amnesia (example: Jason Bourne, The Matrix)
loss of the ability to form or retrieve memories for events that occur after an injury or trauma
anterograde amnesia (example: 50 First Dates)
process by which relatively permanent memories are formed in the brain
consolidation
especially vivid memory created at a time of high emotion
flashbulb memory
the ability to retain a “projected” mental image long enough to use it as a source of information for at least 30 seconds (usually a child)
eidetic imagery
used to describe an uncommon memory ability called eidetic imagery
photgraphic memory
any kind of memory system or aid
mnemonic
