Test 2 Flashcards
Which of the following is an example of sensory adaptation?
a) Finding the cold water of a swimming pool warmer after you have been in it for awhile
b) developing an increased sensitivity to salt the more you use it in foods
c) becoming very irritated at the continuing sound of a dripping faucet
d) none of the above
a
Sensation is to ___ as perception is to ___.
a) recognising a stimulus; interpreting a stimulus
b) detecting a stimulus; recognising a stimulus
c) interpreting a stimulus; detecting a stimulus
d) seeing; hearing
b
The size of the pupil is controlled by the:
iris
The receptor of the eye that functions best in dim light is the:
rod
The transduction of light energy into nerve impulses takes place in the:
retina
According to the opponent-process theory:
neurons involved in colour vision are stimulated by one colour’s wavelength and inhibited by another’s
Which is the correct order of the structures through which light passes after entering the eye?
cornea –> pupil –> lens –> retina
The place theory of pitch perception can not account for how we hear:
low-pitched sounds
The frequency theory of hearing is better than the place theory at explaining our sensation of:
the lowest pitches
Kinesthesis involves:
information from the muscles, tendons, and joints
Figures tend to be perceived as whole, complete objects, even if spaces or gaps exist in the representation, thus demonstrating the principle of:
closure
When we stare at an object, each eye receives a slightly different image, providing a depth cue known as:
retinal disparity
The tendency to organise stimuli into smooth, uninterrupted patterns is called:
continuity
Each time you see your car, it projects a different image on the retinas of your eyes, yet you do not perceive it as changing. This is because of:
perceptual constancy
An artist paints a tree orchard so that the parallel rows of trees converge at the top of the canvas. Which cue has the artist used to convey distance?
linear perspective
the detection of physical energy by our sense organs, which send information to the brain:
sensation
the brain’s interpretation of raw sensory data
perception
the study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based on their physical characteristics
psychophysics
the lowest level of a stimulus we can detect 50% of the time
absolute threshold
the smallest amount of stimulus change we can detect
the just-noticeable difference
activation is highest when stimulus is first detected, then ___ occurs
sensory adaptation
where light enters the eye
pupil
the coloured portion of the eye that controls how much light enters the eye
iris
changes curvature to retract light onto the back of the eye
lens
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing receptor rods and cones, in addition to layers of other neurons that process visual information.
retina
part of the eye that contains transparent cells that focus light on the back of the eye
cornea
retinal cells that respond to particular wavelengths of light, allowing us to see colour
cones
retinal cells that are very sensitive to light but only register shades of gray
rods
part of the eye that exits the back of the eye and is composed of the axons of the ganglion cells
optic nerve
the part of the back of the eye where light does not go through
blind spot
the part of the eye that gives us the sharpest resolution of visual stimuli
fovea
says that colour vision is based on our sensitivity to three primary colours; consistent with 3 types of cones in the eyes
trichromatic theory (Young-Helmholz)
sees colour vision as a function of complementary, opposing colours: e.g. red vs. green, blue vs. yellow
opponent process theory
What are the different parts of the eye and what are their functions? (short answer question)
- pupil - where light enters
- iris - coloured portion that controls how much light enters
- lens - changes curvature to retract light onto back of eye
- retina - light sensitive inner surface of eye that contains rods and cones and other neurons that process visual information
- cornea - focuses light on the back of the eye
part of the inner ear that converts vibration into neural activity
cochlea
inside the eardrum, vibrates and transmits sound to the inner ear
ossicles (hammer, anvil, stirrup)
flexible outer flap of the ear, which channels sound waves into the ear canal
pinna
enables us to sense and maintain our balance as we move about
vestibular sense
helps us keep track of where we are and move efficiently
kinesthesis
As a child, you were playing in the yard one day when a neighbour’s cat wandered over. Your mother (who has a terrible fear of animals) screamed and snatched you into her arms. Her behaviour caused you to cry. You now have a fear of cats.
Identify the CS:
the cat
As a child, you were playing in the yard one day when a neighbour’s cat wandered over. Your mother (who has a terrible fear of animals) screamed and snatched you into her arms. Her behaviour caused you to cry. You now have a fear of cats.
Identify the US:
your mother’s behaviour
As a child, you were playing in the yard one day when a neighbour’s cat wandered over. Your mother (who has a terrible fear of animals) screamed and snatched you into her arms. Her behaviour caused you to cry. You now have a fear of cats.
Identify the CR:
your fear today
As a child, you were playing in the yard one day when a neighbour’s cat wandered over. Your mother (who has a terrible fear of animals) screamed and snatched you into her arms. Her behaviour caused you to cry. You now have a fear of cats.
Identify the UR:
your crying
Bill once had a blue car that was in the shop more than it was out. Since then he will not even consider owning blue or green-coloured cars. Bill’s aversion to green cars is an example of:
generalisation
Putting on your coat when it is cold outside is a behaviour that is maintained by:
negative reinforcement
Bill hates to clean up after dinner. One night, he volunteers to bathe the dog before cleaning up. When he finishes with the dog and returns to the kitchen, his wife has cleaned everything up for him. Which of the following statements is most likely true?
Bill’s wife has negatively reinforced him for bathing the dog.
Leon’s psychology instructor has scheduled an exam every third week of the term. Leon will probably study the most just before an exam and the least just after an exam. This is because the schedule of exams is reinforcing studying according to which schedule?
fixed-interval
Learning by imitating others’ behaviours is called ____ learning. The researcher best known for studying this type of learning is _____.
observational; Bandura
Lars, a shoe salesman, is paid every two weeks, whereas Tom receives a commission for each pair of shoes he sells. Evidently, Lars is paid on a ____ schedule of reinforcement, and Tom on a _____ schedule of reinforcement.
fixed-interval; fixed-ratio
conditioning involving stimuli
classical conditioning (part of short answer question)
What are the five primary components of classical conditioning and what are examples? (part of short answer question)
- neutral stimulus
- unconditioned stimulus (US) - ex. food, loud noise, light in eye, puff of air in eye
- unconditioned response (UR) - ex. salivation, startle, contraction of pupil, eye blink
- conditioned stimulus (CS) - ex. a tone
- conditioned response (CR) - ex. salivation in response to a tone
What are the classical conditioning steps? (part of short answer question)
- start with neutral stimulus (metronome)
- pair the NS with US again and again, which elicits an UR (meat powder and salivation)
- eventually the NS becomes a CS, eliciting a CR (metronome and salivation)
weakening and eventual disappearance of the CR as a result of repeated presentation of the CS without the US
extinction
reappearance of an extinguished CR when an organism is exposed to the CS following a rest period
spontaneous recovery
tendency to make a CR to a stimulus that is similar to the original CS
generalisation
learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the CR occurs only to the original CS but not to similar stimuli
discrimination
learning controlled by the consequences of the organism’s behaviour; the organism gets something because of its response
operant conditioning
Comparison between classical and operant: target behaviour is–
CC: elicited automatically
OC: emitted voluntarily
Comparison between classical and operant: reward is–
CC: provided unconditionally
OC: contingent on behaviour
Comparison between classical and operant: behaviour depends primarily on–
CC: autonomic nervous system
OC: skeletal muscles
consequence of a response determines whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future is strengthened or weakened (i.e., organisms tend to repeat behaviours that bring about pleasant consequences)
law of effect
contains a bar or key that an animal can press or manipulate in order to obtain food or water as a type of reinforcement–also has a device that recorded each response provided by the animal as well as the unique schedule of reinforcement that the animal was assigned
operant conditioning chamber (skinner box)
operant conditioning relies on animal training using ___ by successive approximations
shaping
outcomes that strengthen the probability of a response
reinforcement
any outcome that weakens the probability of a response
punishment
involves giving a stimulus which increases target behaviour
positive reinforcement
involves taking away a stimulus which increases target behaviour
negative reinforcement
involves giving a stimulus which decreases target behaviour
positive punishment
involves taking away a stimulus which decreases target behaviour
negative punishment
A reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need and does not depend on learning
primary reinforcer
schedules of reinforcement: after regular number of responses
fixed ratio
schedules of reinforcement: after specific number of responses, on average
variable ratio
schedules of reinforcement: after specific amount of time
fixed interval
schedules of reinforcement: after an average time interval
variable interval
refers to learning that is not directly observable–implies that reinforcement is not necessary for learning to occur
latent learning
learning by watching others–don’t have to engage in trial and error to learn how to do something new
observational learning
learning a new behaviour from a model through the acquisition of new responses
modeling effect (Bandura and Bobo doll)
The three steps in memory information processing are:
encoding, storage, retrieval
Memory techniques such as the method of loci, acronyms, and the peg-word system are called:
mnemonic devices
One way to increase the amount of information in memory is to group it into larger, familiar units. This process is referred to as:
chunking
After you finish reading this sentence, the information will remain in your ____ as you consider each of the answers below:
short-term memory
According to the serial position effect, when recalling a list of words you should have the greatest difficulty with those:
in the middle
Information is maintained in short-term memory only briefly unless it is:
rehearsed
Memory for skills is called:
implicit memory
Which of the following is NOT a measure of retention?
retrieval
Which of the following sequences would be best to follow if you wanted to minimise interference-induced forgetting in order to improve your recall on the psychology midterm?
study, sleep, test
very vivid, able to be recalled in detail much later
flashbulb memories
getting information into memory
encoding
keeping information in memory
storage
the reactivation or reconstruction of information from memory
retrieval
brief storage of perceptual information before it is passed into short-term memory
sensory memory
memory system that retains information for limited durations
short-term memory
relatively enduring store of information
long-term memory
process to contain auditory, visual processing controlled by central executive, through episodic buffer
working memory
repeating information in short-term memory, extends duration of it
rehearsal
happens when learning new information hampers earlier learning
retroactive interference
happens when earlier learning gets in the way of new learning
proactive interference
extension of short-term memory by grouping
chunking
the process of recalling information intentionally
explicit memory
recalling information that we don’t remember deliberately
implicit memory
our ability to identify a stimulus more easily or more quickly after we’ve encountered similar stimuli
priming
a learning aid that enhances recall; while applicable to almost anything, they depend on existing knowledge store
mnemonics
What are the different types of mnemonics and what are their functions? (short question answer)
- pegword method (uses rhyming)
- method of loci (place imagery)
- link method (involves forming a mental image of items to be remembered in a way that links them together)
generating previously remembered information
recall
selecting previously remembered information from an array of options
recognition
how much more quickly we reacquire something learned before
relearning
loss of memory or ability to make new memories
amnesia
brain part that helps us recall the events themselves
hippocampus
brain part that helps recall emotions associated with fearful events
amygdala
misleading questions can lead to implanting false information. this is known as:
misinformation effect
part of sensory memory that lasts only 1 second
visual encoding
part of sensory memory that lasts about 5-10 seconds
acoustic encoding
states that we learn material more effectively and easily when we study it several times spaced out over a longer time span, rather than trying to learn it in a short period of time.
spacing effect
refers to the tendency to recall information that is presented first and last (like in a list) better than information presented in the middle.
serial position effect
the formation of mental pictures
imagery
a specific type of encoding in which the meaning of something (a word, phrase, picture, event, whatever) is encoded as opposed to the sound or vision of it.
semantic encoding
a theory of memory that claims that human memory has three separate components: a sensory register,
a short-term store (also called working memory or short-term memory), and a long-term store, where information which has been rehearsed in the short-term store is held indefinitely.
Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory
What are the three separate parts of the Atkinson-Shiffrin model of memory and what are their functions?
- sensory memory - storage of perceptual information before it is passed into short-term memory
- short-term memory - system that retains information for limited durations
- long-term memory - enduring store of information
having the strong sensation that an event or experience currently being experienced has been experienced in the past
déjà vu
the involuntary, unconscious concealment of uncomfortable thoughts and desires
repression
A mental grouping of similar things, events, or people is called:
concept
Mental set and functional fixedness are two types of:
fixation
Representativeness and availability are examples of:
heuristics
Which of the following is NOT true of babbling?
it is imitation of adult speech
Phonemes are the basic units of ____ in language.
sound
any mental activity or processing of information
cognition
mental catagories used to represent a class or group of objects, people, events, etc.
concepts
a mental image or best example that helps us form concepts
prototype
a set of instructions for solving a problem or completing a process
algorithm
a rule of thumb derived from experience and used in decision making and problem solving, despite no guarantee of accuracy
heuristic
What are the types of heuristics and what are their functions? (short question answer)
- availability heuristic - an event’s probability corresponds to the ease with which the event comes to mind (ex. overestimating the probability of rare events like winning the lottery)
- representativeness heuristic - decision based on how closely a new situation resembles a familiar one (ex. choosing a fast-food restaurant)
- recognition heuristic - decision making process stops as soon as a factor that moves one toward a decision has been recognised (ex. influences voting behaviour, such as recognising a candidate’s name as that of a woman)
arbitrary system of communication that combines symbols, such as words or gestural signs, in rule-based ways to create meaning; helps us communicate information, as well as social and emotional functions
language
What are the elements of language?
- phonemes
- morphemes
- syntax
- grammar
- semantics
categories of sounds our vocal apparatus produces
phonemes
the smallest units of meaning in a language
morphemes
meaning derived from words and sentences
semantics
the set of rules of a language by which we construct sentences
syntax
stage that allows us to develop control over vocal tracts
babbling stage
first stage of syntactic development
one-word stage
stage in which two words are combined
two-word stage
stage in which child speaks like a telegram
telegraphic speech
a system of rules and principles for speaking and writing a language
grammar
