test 1 review

Question 1

What is Spencer-Oatleys definition of culture?

Answer 1

Culture refers to the collective knowledge, beliefs, behaviors, customs, and social norms that characterize a particular group of people.

Spencer-Oatey emphasizes that culture is shared, learned, and dynamic.

Question 2

What are the key characteristics of culture?

Answer 2

It includes values, beliefs, communication styles, practices, and behaviors.

Culture is acquired through socialization and manifests in both visible (language, clothing) and invisible aspects (beliefs, values).

Question 3

What are inadequate conceptions of culture?

Answer 3

Misconceptions include viewing culture as solely a national characteristic or assuming it is fixed and unchanging. Culture is more complex, involving multiple layers (individual, group, national) and is constantly evolving.

Question 4

What are levels of analysis, and fallacies to avoid according to Spencer-Oatley?

Answer 4

Understanding culture requires examining different levels (individual, societal) and avoiding fallacies such as stereotyping or overgeneralizing cultural behaviors.

Question 5

What are related terms to culture, as described by Spencer-Oatey?

Answer 5

Spencer-Oatey differentiates between culture and related concepts such as identity, norms, and values, emphasizing that culture shapes but does not strictly define individuals.

Question 6

What revolutions of language does Edward T. Hall discuss in Power of Hidden Differences?

Answer 6

Hall discusses how language and communication evolve across cultures, including both verbal and non-verbal forms. The “hidden” aspects of language involve non-verbal cues that are not immediately apparent but are critical in communication.

Question 7

What is chronemics?

Answer 7

The study of how cultures perceive and use time.

Some cultures (e.g., Canada, the USA) follow monochronic time (linear, structured), valuing punctuality and schedules.

In contrast, other cultures (e.g., Portugal) operate on polychronic time (flexible, adaptable), where relationships and interactions are prioritized over strict time management.

Question 8

What is proxemics?

Answer 8

The use and perception of personal space in communication.

Northern European and North American cultures tend to maintain a larger “personal bubble,” while

Southern European, South American, and African cultures may prefer closer proximity.

Question 9

What is context (high v low)?

Answer 9

Hall distinguishes between high-context and low-context cultures.

In high-context cultures (e.g., Japan, China), communication relies heavily on context, non-verbal cues, and implicit understanding.

In low-context cultures (e.g., USA, Germany), communication is direct, with most information explicitly stated in words.

Question 10

What are manifest vs tacit-acquired cultures, as defined by Hall?

Answer 10

Manifest cultures involve learned, conscious behaviors and norms, while tacit-acquired cultures encompass unconscious, deeply ingrained habits that individuals may not be aware of but still practice.

Question 11

What is intercultural training, as defined by Pusch?

Answer 11

The process of educating individuals to understand, respect, and adapt to cultural differences, fostering effective communication across cultures.

Question 12

What was the Marshall Plan?

Answer 12

Implications of the Marshall Plan: Post-World War II, the Marshall Plan saw American officials working in Europe, highlighting the need for intercultural communication as they struggled to connect with local communities.

Question 13

Describe the evolution of types of training in intercultural training.

Answer 13

Early intercultural training started at the Foreign Service Institute in America, directed by Edward T. Hall.

It evolved from lecture-based methods to practical, experiential learning, role-playing, and exercises like contrast-culture training and cultural assimilators.

Question 14

What is barnga?

Answer 14

An intercultural training game where participants experience communication challenges by engaging in activities that simulate cultural misunderstandings, fostering awareness and adaptation skills.

Question 15

What are the three types of mental programming, as stated by Hofstede?

Answer 15

Three Types of Mental Programming:

Universal: Common human nature shared by all humans.

Collective: Cultural aspects shared within a group or society.

Individual: Unique characteristics distinguishing one person from another.

Question 16

What are the six dimensions of culture, as defined by Hofsted?

Answer 16

1. Power Distance (PDI): Measures how societies handle inequalities in power. High PDI (e.g., Malaysia) indicates acceptance of hierarchical structures, while low PDI (e.g., Denmark) favors equality and decentralization.
2. Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI): Assesses a society’s tolerance for ambiguity. High UAI (e.g., Japan) reflects a preference for rules and structure to mitigate uncertainty, while low UAI (e.g., Sweden) suggests a more relaxed, flexible approach.
3. Individualism vs. Collectivism (IDV): Examines the importance of individual autonomy versus group cohesion. Individualistic cultures (e.g., USA) prioritize personal goals, while collectivist cultures (e.g., China) emphasize group harmony.
4. Masculinity vs. Femininity (MAS): Now referred to as Decisive vs. Consensus-oriented. Masculine societies (e.g., Japan) value competition and achievement, whereas feminine societies (e.g., Sweden) prioritize care and consensus.
5. Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation (LTO): Reflects a culture’s attitude toward tradition and future planning. Long-term (e.g., China) focuses on perseverance and adaptation, while short-term (e.g., USA) stresses quick results and respect for tradition.
6. Indulgence vs. Restraint (IND): Measures a culture’s allowance for free gratification of human desires. Indulgent cultures (e.g., Mexico) embrace leisure and joy, while restrained cultures (e.g., Egypt) impose strict social norms on behavior.

Extreme ends of these dimensions include the USA’s high individualism, Japan’s high masculinity, and Russia’s high uncertainty avoidance.

Question 17

What are the extremes of Hofsted’s six dimensions of culture?

Answer 17

Extreme ends of these dimensions include the USA’s high individualism, Japan’s high masculinity, and Russia’s high uncertainty avoidance.

Question 18

Define The Marshall Plan and Intercultural Training

Answer 18

Post-WWII, the Marshall Plan involved the USA in rebuilding Europe. American officials realized that communication with local communities was ineffective, leading to the development of intercultural training programs. The American Peace Corps later adopted similar intercultural practices, focusing on practical experiences and role-playing.

Question 19

Describe Edward T. Hall’s Intercultural Communication Concepts

Answer 19

Hall’s focus on both verbal (Type A, learned) and non-verbal (Type B, acquired) communication remains relevant.

He stressed the importance of unconscious culture (high-context communication) and argued that understanding and adapting to these hidden aspects are crucial for intercultural effectiveness.

Question 20

What is the new term for “maculinity”

Answer 20

Decisive

Question 21

What is the new term for “femininity”

Answer 21

Consensus-oriented

Question 22

Describe the decisive dimension

Answer 22

a high score (decisive) in this dimension means that the society will be driven by competition, achievement and success, with success being defined by the winner/best in the field
- a value system that starts in school and continues throughout organizational life

Question 23

Describe the Consensus-oriented dimension

Answer 23

A low score (consensus-oriented) on the dimension means that the dominant values in society are caring for others and quality of life.

A consensus-oriented society is one where quality of life is the sign of success and standing out from the crowd is not admirable.

Question 24

What was the first revolution in Edward T. Hall’s article?

Answer 24

Ancestors gained the ability to speak, setting the foundation for distinguishing between learned information (type A) and acquired information (type B).

Question 24

What marked the third revolution in language evolution?

Answer 24

The recording of language, such as Egyptian hieroglyphs, making it last longer than spoken language.

Question 25

What did the second revolution involve in Hall’s article?

Answer 25

Development of metalanguage, allowing people to talk about language itself with vocabulary to distinguish linguistic events.

Question 26

How was recorded language used in the fourth revolution?

Answer 26

It became a societal tool, for example, Roman law was written down, making laws uniform and less open to interpretation.

Question 27

What was the fifth revolution in Hall’s article?

Answer 27

Philosophers hid complex ideas from the public, widening the gap between cultural unconscious (type B) and manifest culture (type A), impacting identity.

Question 28

What is the sixth revolution discussed by Hall?

Answer 28

The discovery of the unconscious and tacet-acquired theory, emphasizing how people unknowingly learn from everyday events.

Question 29

What are the dimensions of national cultures to be familiar with?

Answer 29

Understand how cultures differ on dimensions like individualism vs. collectivism, power distance, and communication style.

Question 30

What shift in training methods did Edward T. Hall contribute to?

Answer 30

He moved from lecture-based training to more experiential learning, such as role play and games.

Question 31

How does Type A/Type B relate to high/low context communication?

Answer 31

Type A is associated with low-context cultures, where communication is explicit and detailed.

Type B is linked to high-context cultures, where communication relies on implicit cues and shared understanding.