Dimensionalizing Cultures - The Hofstede Model in Context Reading Flashcards
What is the difference in societal vs organizational culture?
Societal cultures reside in (often unconscious) values, in the sense of broad tendencies to prefer certain states of affairs over others.
Organizational cultures reside rather in (visible and conscious) practices: the way people perceive what goes on in their organizational environment.
What did Edward T. Hall determine, and what is the modern distinction that it overlaps with?
Edward T. Hall (1976) divided cultures according to their ways of communicating, into high-content vs low-content
Now, it is suggested that human action is determined by 5 choices between pairs of alternatives:
1. Affectivity (need gratification) versus affective neutrality (restraint of impulses);
2. Self-orientation versus collectivity-orientation;
3. Universalism (applying general standards) versus particularism (taking particular relationships into account);
4. Ascription (judging others by who they are) versus achievement (judging them by what they do);
5. Specificity (limiting relations to others to specific spheres) versus diffuseness (no prior limitations to nature of relations
What two dimensional ordering of the ways of looking at the world did Mary Douglas come up with?
- ‘Group’ or inclusion - the claim of groups over members, and
- ‘Grid’ or classification - the degree to which interaction is subject to rules
One of the weaknesses of much cross-cultural research is not recognizing the difference between analysis at the ______ level and at the ______ level; this amounts to confusing _______ and _________
One of the weaknesses of much cross-cultural research is not recognizing the difference between analysis at the societal level and at the individual level; this amounts to confusing anthropology and psychology
analyses of data at higher levels of aggregation are called:
ecological
Ecological factor analysis differs from the factor analysis of individual scores in that a usual caution no longer applies: the number of cases does not need to be (much) larger than the number of variables.
The stability of the results of an ecological factor analysis does not depend on the number of cases, but on the number of individuals whose scores were aggregated into these cases.
Ecological factor analysis may even be performed on matrices with fewer cases than variables
What is a dimension?
A dimension is an aspect of a culture that can be measured relative to other culture
Ten Differences Between Small- and Large- Power Distance Societies
Power Use:
Small: Legitimate, based on good and evil.
Large: Power exists beyond good or evil.
Parenting Style:
Small: Children treated as equals.
Large: Children taught obedience.
Attitudes Toward Elders:
Small: Elders neither feared nor particularly respected.
Large: Elders respected and feared.
Education:
Small: Student-centered.
Large: Teacher-centered.
Hierarchy:
Small: Roles for convenience.
Large: Hierarchy signifies inequality.
Subordinate Expectations:
Small: Expect to be consulted.
Large: Expect to be directed.
Governance:
Small: Pluralist, peaceful transitions.
Large: Autocratic, often revolutionary changes.
Corruption:
Small: Rare, scandals ruin careers.
Large: Frequent, scandals covered up.
Income Distribution:
Small: Fairly even.
Large: Very uneven.
Religion:
Small: Emphasizes equality.
Large: Hierarchical priesthood.
Ten Differences Between Weak- and Strong- Uncertainty Avoidance Societies
Life Uncertainty:
Weak: Accepted, take life as it comes.
Strong: Seen as a constant threat.
Stress Levels:
Weak: Lower stress, self-control, low anxiety.
Strong: Higher stress, anxiety, emotionality.
Subjective Health:
Weak: Higher well-being.
Strong: Lower well-being.
Tolerance of Differences:
Weak: Curious about deviance.
Strong: Deviance is dangerous.
Ambiguity:
Weak: Comfortable with chaos.
Strong: Need for clarity and structure.
Teachers’ Role:
Weak: Can admit uncertainty.
Strong: Expected to know everything.
Job Changes:
Weak: No problem changing jobs.
Strong: Stay in jobs even if disliked.
Rules:
Weak: Dislike rules.
Strong: Emotional need for rules, even if disobeyed.
Political Attitudes:
Weak: Citizens feel competent towards authorities.
Strong: Citizens feel incompetent towards authorities.
Philosophy and Science:
Weak: Emphasize relativism and empiricism.
Strong: Believe in ultimate truths and grand theories.
Ten Differences Between Individualist and Collectivist Societies
Family Responsibility:
Individualism: Care for oneself and immediate family only.
Collectivism: Born into extended families or clans that protect in exchange for loyalty.
Consciousness:
Individualism: “I” – consciousness.
Collectivism: “We” – consciousness.
Privacy vs. Belonging:
Individualism: Right of privacy.
Collectivism: Stress on belonging.
Expression:
Individualism: Speaking one’s mind is healthy.
Collectivism: Harmony should always be maintained.
Classification of Others:
Individualism: Others classified as individuals.
Collectivism: Others classified as in-group or out-group.
Opinions and Voting:
Individualism: Personal opinion expected, one person one vote.
Collectivism: Opinions and votes predetermined by in-group.
Emotional Responses to Norms:
Individualism: Transgression of norms leads to guilt.
Collectivism: Transgression of norms leads to shame.
Language Use:
Individualism: “I” is indispensable in the language.
Collectivism: “I” is avoided in the language.
Purpose of Education:
Individualism: Learning how to learn.
Collectivism: Learning how to do.
Task vs. Relationship:
Individualism: Task prevails over relationship.
Collectivism: Relationship prevails over task.
Ten Differences Between Feminine and Masculine Societies
Gender Role Differentiation:
Femininity: Minimum emotional and social role differentiation between genders.
Masculinity: Maximum emotional and social role differentiation.
Assertiveness:
Femininity: Men and women should be modest and caring.
Masculinity: Men should be assertive and ambitious; women may be.
Work-Life Balance:
Femininity: Balance between family and work.
Masculinity: Work prevails over family.
Attitude Toward Weakness and Strength:
Femininity: Sympathy for the weak.
Masculinity: Admiration for the strong.
Parenting Roles:
Femininity: Both parents deal with facts and feelings.
Masculinity: Fathers deal with facts, mothers with feelings.
Emotional Expression:
Femininity: Both boys and girls may cry; neither should fight.
Masculinity: Boys don’t cry, but should fight; girls cry but shouldn’t fight.
Decision-Making in Families:
Femininity: Mothers decide on the number of children.
Masculinity: Fathers decide on family size.
Women in Politics:
Femininity: Many women in elected political positions.
Masculinity: Few women in elected political positions.
Religious Focus:
Femininity: Religion focuses on fellow human beings.
Masculinity: Religion focuses on God or gods.
Attitudes About Sexuality:
Femininity: Matter-of-fact attitudes about sexuality; sex is a way of relating.
Masculinity: Moralistic attitudes about sexuality; sex is a way of performing.
Short-term vs long-term orientation
View of Life Events:
Short-Term: Most important events happened in the past or present.
Long-Term: Most important events will occur in the future.
Personal Stability:
Short-Term: A good person is always the same.
Long-Term: A good person adapts to circumstances.
Morality:
Short-Term: Universal guidelines of good and evil.
Long-Term: Good and evil depend on circumstances.
Traditions:
Short-Term: Traditions are sacrosanct.
Long-Term: Traditions are adaptable.
Family Life:
Short-Term: Guided by imperatives.
Long-Term: Guided by shared tasks.
National Pride:
Short-Term: Proud of one’s country.
Long-Term: Learn from other countries.
Goals:
Short-Term: Service to others is important.
Long-Term: Thrift and perseverance are important.
Spending vs. Saving:
Short-Term: Social spending and consumption.
Long-Term: Large savings, investment funds.
Attribution of Success:
Short-Term: Success/failure attributed to luck.
Long-Term: Success from effort, failure from lack of effort.
Economic Growth:
Short-Term: Slow or no economic growth for poor countries.
Long-Term: Fast economic growth until prosperity.
Long-term oriented are East Asian countries, followed by Eastern- and Central Europe. A medium term orientation is found in South- and North-European and South Asian countries. Short-term oriented are U.S.A. and Australia, Latin American, African and Muslim countries
Ten Differences between Indulgent and Restrained Societies
Happiness:
Indulgence: More people declare themselves very happy.
Restraint: Fewer people declare themselves very happy.
Perception of Control:
Indulgence: Feel personal life control.
Restraint: Feel helpless, believe life events are out of their control.
Freedom of Speech:
Indulgence: Seen as important.
Restraint: Not a primary concern.
Leisure:
Indulgence: Higher importance placed on leisure.
Restraint: Lower importance placed on leisure.
Emotional Memory:
Indulgence: More likely to remember positive emotions.
Restraint: Less likely to remember positive emotions.
Birthrates in Educated Populations:
Indulgence: Higher birthrates.
Restraint: Lower birthrates.
Sports Participation:
Indulgence: More people involved in sports.
Restraint: Fewer people involved in sports.
Obesity in Wealthy Countries:
Indulgence: Higher percentages of obese people.
Restraint: Lower percentages of obese people.
Sexual Norms in Wealthy Countries:
Indulgence: Lenient sexual norms.
Restraint: Stricter sexual norms.
Law and Order:
Indulgence: Maintaining order is not a high priority.
Restraint: Higher number of police officers per population.
Indulgence tends to prevail in South and North America, in Western Europe and in parts of Sub-Sahara Africa. Restraint prevails in Eastern Europe, in Asia and in the Muslim world. Mediterranean Europe takes a middle position on this dimension
The 6 hofsted et al dimensions are:
- Process-oriented vs. Results-oriented:
Process-oriented: Focused on routines and procedures; varies in perception across different levels.
Results-oriented: Focused on outcomes; more homogeneous in perception, reflecting a stronger culture. - Job-oriented vs. Employee-oriented:
Job-oriented: Concerned with job performance only.
Employee-oriented: Concerned with employees’ overall well-being. - Professional vs. Parochial:
Professional: Members identify with their profession.
Parochial: Members identify with the organization they work for. - Open Systems vs. Closed Systems:
Open Systems: Communicates openly and admits outsiders easily.
Closed Systems: Communication is restricted, and outsiders are less easily admitted. - Tight vs. Loose Control:
Tight Control: High formality and punctuality.
Loose Control: Lower formality and more flexibility. - Pragmatic vs. Normative:
Pragmatic: Flexible in dealing with customers and the environment.
Normative: Rigid and rule-bound, particularly when applying laws or regulations.
